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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

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THE 


ARCHITECT, 


I?IBii©^ll®iiIL  IH®W§:^  © AIBIPIlSr^IMIB  3  * 


ILLUSTBATEO   BT 


SIXTY-FOUR   EI¥GRATI]¥GS, 

WHICH  EXHIBIT   THE   ORDERS  OF   ARCHITECTURE, 

OTELER  ELEMENTS  OF  TEIE  ART; 


FOR  THE  USE   OF  CARPENTERS  AND  BUILDERS. 


By    ASHER    BEIVJAMIN,  Architect, 

AOTHOB  OF  THE  "AMERICAN  BQILDER'S  COMPANION,"  THE  "RUDIMENTS  OF  ABCHrTECTUBB,"  THE 
"PRACTICE  OF  ARCHITECTURE,"  AND  THE  "BUILDER'S  GUIDE." 


BOSTON: 

PUBLISHED   BY   L.    COFFIN. 


1843. 


Entend  aeeoTding  to  Act  of  Congren,  in  the  year  1840, 

Bt  B.  B.  MassET, 

In  tfas  ClcA'i  Office  of  the  Diitrict  Court  of  the  Distriot  of  MiiuuuubiMlMa, 


PREFACE. 


I  v/rable    manner    in    which    my    former    pubUcations    on 

Architecture  have  been  received,  and  the  M^ant  of  a  practical 
treatise  on  that  subject,  adapted  to  the  present  style  of  building 
in  our  own  country,  are  the  principal  motives  which  induce  me  to 
place  this  work  before  the  public. 

Since  my  last  publication,  the  Roman  school  of  architecture  has 
been  entirely  changed  for  the  Grecian.  Very  few  things  of  the 
same  nature  differ  more  than  the  Greek  and  Roman  creeds  of  the 
orders.  The  Roman  orders  are  chiefly  composed  of  small  and 
ungraceful  parts,  and  the  mouldings  are  made  up  of  parts  of  a 
circle,  which  do  not  produce  that  beautiful  light  and  shade,  so 
happily  effected  by  the  Grecian  mouldings.  These  latter  are 
composed  of  parts  of  ellipses,  parabolas,  hyperbolas  and  other 
conic  sections,  and  consist,  mostly,  of  large,  bold  parts,  which  are 
so  strongly  marked,  that  each  member  of  the  profile  is  plainly  tceu 
at  a  very  considerable  distance  ;  and  can  likewise  be  executed  with 
less  expense  than  the  former.  I  confess  myself  to  be  an  admirer 
of  Grecian  architecture,  yet  I  am  not  disposed  to  condemn  the 
general  proportions  of  the  Roman  orders,  none  of  which,  except 
the  Doric,  differ  essentially  from  those  of  the  Grecian.  The 
cohmin    of  that    order   was   generally  made,  by  the   Greeks,    about 


iy  PREFACE. 

five  diameters  in  height ;  but  the  same  order  was  generally 
made,  by  the  Romans,  from  seven  and  a  half  to  eight  diameters 
in  height.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  latter  proportion  comes 
nearer  to  our  practice  than  the  former  one,  especially  when  the 
orders  are  used  in  private  houses.  The  members  of  the  Grecian 
columns  and  entablatures,  however,  are  certainly  better  proportioned 
to  each  other  than  those  of  the  Roman. 

With  a  strong  desire  to  make  this  work  useful  to  the  practical 
builder,  I  have  endeavored  to  divest  myself  of  any  prejudice  I  might 
have  for  or  against  any  school  of  architecture,  and  to  select,  from 
all  the  books  on  that  subject,  those  parts  which  I  thought  would 
best  promote  my  object.  With  this  view,  I  have  first  given  an 
example  of  the  Tuscan  order,  which  is  of  Roman  origin  ;  then  one 
of  the  Doric  order,  from  the  Temple  of  Theseus  at  Athens,  exactly 
corresponding  to  the  measures  taken  of  that  celebrated  building  by 
Stuart  and  Revet ;  again,  a  second  example  of  the  Doric  order, 
from  Sir  William  Chambers,  whose  orders  are  esteemed  the  most 
perfect  and  beautiful  of  the  Roman  school  ;  and  lastly,  a  third 
example,  composed  from  the  two  first,  but  chiefly  from  the  Temple 
of  Theseus,  which  I  believe  better  adapted  to  the  practice  of  our 
own  country,  at  the  present  time,  than  either  of  the  others, — but 
those  who  differ  from  me  in  opinion  have  one  of  the  most  perfect  of 
the  Greek,  and  one  of  the  best  of  the  Roman  examples,  to  make 
their  selection  from.  I  have  proceeded  in  the  same  manner  with  the 
Ionic  orders,  giving  first   an  example  from  the  Temple  of  Minerva 


PREFACE.  Y 

Polias  at  Priene,  which  is   considered  one  of  the  best  Greek  exam- 
ples ;     secondly,    an    example    from    Sir    William    Chambers;     and 
thirdly,  one  of  my  own  compiling,   which  is  chiefly   Greek,  the  capi- 
tal  being   taken    from    the    Ionic    temple    on    the    river    Illyssus    at 
Athens.     The    Corinthian     order    having    been    little    used    by    the 
Greeks,    the    Roman    examples    are    generally    esteemed    the    most 
perfect ;  I  have  therefore  given  an  example  of  this  order  from  the 
Temple  of  Jupiter   Stator  at  Rome.     Although  the  Composite  order 
was  evidently  of  Roman   origin,   and   is   not  much  in  use  here  or 
elsewhere,  I  have  nevertheless  thought  it  proper  to  give  an  elevation 
of  that  order  from  that  most  beautiful  example,  the  Arch  of  Titus 
at  Rome.     I  have  also  given  a  profile  of  the  entablature  and  capital, 
taken   from   the  Choragic  Monument  of   Thrasyllus  at  Athens,  and 
the  Ionic  entablature  from  the  Temple  of  the   Muses,  at  the  same 
place;  and   also  several  other  examples  for  entablatures   and  capi- 
tals, which  will  often  be  found  useful. 

I  consider  it  necessary  that  all  practical  house  carpenters  should 
be  fully  acquainted  with  the  orders  of  architecture,  particularly 
those  who  reside  in  the  country,  where  they  have  no  opportunity  of 
consulting  an  architect:  I  have  therefore  been  very  particular  in 
the  descriptive  part  of  the  orders  ;  which  care,  together  with  that  I 
have  taken  in  drawing  and  representing  the  most  difficult  parts  on 
a  large  scale,  will,  I  am  persuaded,  make  them  so  plain  and  easy, 
that  a  workman  of  ordinary  capacity  can  make  himself  perfect 
master  of  the  orders,  without  the  aid  of  an  instructer  ;  and  when  he 
2 


vi  PREFACE. 

fully  comprehends  them,  he  will  be   able  to  understand  the  whole 
subject  of  this  book. 

With  a  view  to  render  this  work  completely  a  practical  one,  and 
to  facilitate  and  assist  the  efforts  of  master  carpenters,  I  have 
drawn  all  the  architraves,  base  and  sur-base  mouldings,  and  all 
other  examples  where  it  was  possible  so  to  do,  at  full  size  for  prac- 
tice, and  I  trust  they  will  be  found  particularly  useful  to  those  car- 
penters who  have  not  had  an  opportunity  of  learning-  to  draw  archi- 
tectural subjects. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Peter  Nicholson's  ingenious  treatise  on 
stairs  for  the  principles  of  handrailing.  I  have  made  the  drawings 
on  that  subject  somewhat  different  from  his,  and  have  explained 
them  in  my  own  way,  I  therefore  believe  that  this  book  will  be  found 
to  contain  the  most  direct  and  best  method  of  handrailing,  and  will, 
I  am  persuaded,  be  more  useful  to  the  stair  builder  than  any  one  of 
his  books  on  that   subject. 

Three  editions  of  this  work,  each  containing  one  thousand  copies, 
having  been  sold,  the  author  is  encouraged  to  publish  a  fourth.  He 
acknowledges  his  gratitude  to  the  public  for  their  liberal  patronage, 
and  hopes  the  work  will  still  be  found  useful  to  them. 

A.  BENJMIIN. 


INDEX. 


Plat*. 

fJpoN  a  given  straight  line  to  construct  any  regular  polygon I. 

The  method  of  drawing  Grecian  and  Roman  mouldings II. 

Tuscan  order III. 

Doric  order  from  the  temple  of  Theseus  at  Athens IV. 

Doric  order  as  approved  by  Sir  William  Chambers V. 

Doric  order,  Example  No.  3 VI. 

Raking  mouldings,  triglyphs,  &c VII. 

Planceer  of  the  Doric  cornice,  and  base  mouldings VIII 

Ionic  order  from  the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias  at  Priene IX 

Plan  and  elevation  of  the  Ionic  capital X 

Ionic  order  as  approved  by  Sir  William  Chambers X^ 

Ionic  order.  Example  No.  3 XII. 

Entablature  and  capital  from  the  Choragic  monument,  and  an  entablature  from  the  Ionic  temple 

of  the  Muses .     .  XIII. 

Two  composed  entablatures,  and  a  capital  for  a  pilaster  XIV. 

Ionic  entablature  with  modillions       .  XV. 

Best  method  for  drawing  the  Ionic  volutes  ....  XVI.  and  XVII. 

Corinthian  order  from  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator  at  Rome XVIII. 

Corinthian  capital,  modillions,  &c XIX. 

Composite  order  from  the  arch  of  Titus  at  Rome XX. 

Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic  and  Corinthian  pedestals XXI 

Impost  mouldings  and  architraves XXIt 

The  method  of  fluting  and  diminishing  columns ....    XXIII. 

The  method  of  gluing  up  and  finishing  shafts  of  columns ....     XXIV. 

Designs  for  key-stones  and  for  balusters XXV. 

Designs  for  vases XXVI. 

Design  for  a  frontispiece  to  a  door XXVII. 

Design  for  a  frontispiece  to  a  door  with  pilasters XXVIII. 

Plan  and  elevation  for  an  Ionic  portico XXIX.  and  XXX. 

Design  for  a  window,  shutters,  cap  and  sill XXXI 

Design  for  a  dormer  window         XXXII 

Designs  for  wooden  fences  ...  XXXIII 


vfii  INDEX. 

Designs  for  eave  cornices  XXXIV. 

Designs  for  eave  cornices  with  friezes XXXV. 

Designs  for  stucco  cornices XXXVI.  and  XXXVII. 

Designs  for  sash  frames,  sashes  and  shutters XXXVIII. 

Designs  for  inside  doors,  with  mouldings  at  large XXXIX. 

Designs  for  sur-base  mouldings,  full  size  for  practice XL. 

Designs  for  base  mouldings,  full  size  for  practice XLI.  XLII.  XLIII.  and  XLIV. 

Designs  for  architraves,  full  size  for  practice XLV.  XLVI.  and  XLVII. 

Method  of  fitting  the  architrave  to  the  block  at  the  angles,  and  to  the  plinth XLVIII. 

Designs  for  chimney-pieces XLIX.  L.  and  LI. 

Designs  for  frets  and  guiloches LII. 

Designs  for  roofs LIII.  and  LIV. 

Designs  for  truss  girders,  floors,  &c LV. 

Designs  for  truss  partitions,  angle  brackets,  &c LVI. 

Designs  for  stair  newels  and  sections  for  handrails       LVII. 

Designs  for  scroll,  curtail  step,  face  and  falling  mould LVIII. 

Reciprocal  spirals  and  scrolls LIX. 

Construction  of  the  moulds  for  a  circular  staircase LX. 

Construction  of  spring  moulds  for  circular  stairs LXI. 

Plan  and  elevation  for  a  circular  staircase LXII. 

Plan  and  elevation  for  a  pulpit LXIII 

Moulding  in  detail  for  a  pulpit * -.iXIV 


THE 


PRACTICAL  HOUSE  CARPENTER. 


PRACTICAL   GEOMETRY. 


PLATE   I. 

FIG.   1. 
In  a  given  square,  A  B  C  D,to  describe  a  regular  octagon.     Witli 
one   half  the  distance   A  C  or   B  D,  and    on  A  B  C  D,  as  centres, 
describe  the  arcs  g  m  d,  e  m  k,  c  m  h,  and  fm  i  ;  joinfe,  d  c,  ki,  and 
h  g,  and  it  will  be  the  octagon  required. 

FIG.  2 
In  a  given  circle   to  describe   an  equilateral   triangle.     Upon   anv 
point,  A,  in  the  circumference,  with  the  radius  A  G,  describe  the  arc 
B  G  F  ;   draw  B   F,  and  make  B   D    equal  to  B   F  ;  join  D  F   and 
D  B,  then  B  D  F  will  be  the  equilateral  triangle  required. 

FIG.  3 
In  a  given  circle  to  describe  a  square  or   an  octagon.     Draw  t!ie 
diameter  A  C  and  B  D    at  right  angles  ;    join  A  B,  B  C,  C  D    and 
D    A,  and   A   B    C    D  will  be   the  square.     For  the  octagon,  bisect 
A  B  in  E,  and  carry  A  E  eight  times  around  the  circumference. 

FIG.  4,  5  and  6. 

Upon  a  given  line,  a   b,  to  construct  any  regular   polygon.     Upon 
o  and  b  as  centres,  with  a  radius  equal  to  a  b,  describe  two  arcs  in 
3 


10  PRACTICAL   GEOMETRY. 

tersecting  each  other  at  f;  from  h  draw  the  perpendicular  h  c,  and 
divide  the  arc  a  c  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  the  polygon  is  to  have 
sides.  Through  the  second  division  d  draw  h  g  ;  make  c/ equal  to/ 
d,  and  through  e  draw  a  g,  meeting  b  g  at  g  ;  then  g  will  be  the  cen- 
tre, and  g  a  the  radius  of  a  circle,  that  will  contain  a  &  to  any  number 
of  sides  required. 

FIG.   7. 

To  describe  the  segment  of  a  circle  by  means  of  a  triangle.  Let 
A  B  be  the  length  of  the  segment,  and  C  D  the  perpendicular  height 
in  the  middle ;  through  the  points  D  and  A  draw  D  A,  and  draw 
D  E  parallel  to  A  B  ;  make  D  E  equal  to  D  A,  and  join  E  A, 
which  makes  the  triangle  EDA.  Put  in  pins  at  the  points  A  D  B  ; 
then  move  your  triangle  around  the  points  D  and  A,  and  the  angular 
point  will  describe  half  the  segment.  The  other  half  will  be  de- 
scribed in  the  same  manner,  which  will  complete  the  whole  segment 
required. 

FIG.   8. 

The  transverse  and  conjugate  axes  A  B  and  C  D  of  an  ellipsis  be- 
ing given,  to  find  the  two  foci,  and  from  thence  to  describe  an  ellipsis. 
Take  the  semitransverse  A  E  or  E  B,  and  from  C  as  a  centre  de- 
scribe an  arc  cutting  A  B  at  F  and  G,  which  will  be  the  foci. 

Fix  pins  in  those  points,  a  string  being  extended  about  the  points 
F  C  G,  then  move  the  point  C  around  the  fixed  points  F  and  G, 
keeping  the  string  tight,  and  the  ellipsis  will  be  described. 

FIG.  9. 
To  describe  an  ellipsis  by  an  instrument  called  a  trammel.  Set 
the  distance  of  the  first  pin,  B,  from  the  pencil  at  C,  to  half  the  short- 
est diameter,  and  the  distance  of  the  second  pin.  A,  to  half  the  longest 
diameter  ;  the  pins  being  put  in  the  grooves,  as  shown  in  the  figure  ; 
then  move  the  pencil  at  C,  and  it  will  describe  the  ellipsis  required. 


MOULDINGS 


PLATE  II. 

FIG.  1,  2  and  3. 

To  describe  the  Grecian  echinus,  or  ovolo  to  any  given  height  and 
projection.  Figures  1,  2  and  3  are  all  of  one  height,  but  of  differ- 
ent projections.  Divide  their  heights  (excluding  the  quick)  and  their 
projections,  each  into  a  hke  number  of  equal  parts  ;  through  the  di- 
visions 1  2  3  and  4,  on  the  line  of  height,  draw  lines  parallel  to  the 
moulding,  and  also  from  A,  at  the  extremity  of  the  outline,  draw  Hnes 
to  1  2  3  and  4,  on  the  line  of  projection  ;  then  throtigh  the  points, 
Avhere  these  lines  cut  those  first  described,  trace  the  outline  of  the 
echinus,  and  continue  it  as  judgment  directs  from  A  around  the  quick 
to  the  fillet.  The  outline  just  described  is  a  parabola,  and  that  of  fig. 
4  is  an  hyperbola,  which  may  be  drawn  by  leaving  off  the  lower 
fourth  part,  or  more  or  less  of  the  line  of  height  A  D  ;  or,  which 
produces  the  same  thing,  from  the  points  on  the  line  of  height  at  C, 
draw  lines  which,  if  produced,  would  meet  in  a  point  at  a  distance  of 
once  or  twice  the  projection  of  the  moulding,  or  more  or  less,  remem- 
bering that  the  nearer  the  moulding  these  lines  meet,  the  nearer  will 
the  outline  of  the  echinus  approach  to  a  straight  line. 

It  will  be  plainly  seen,  that,  by  the  application  of  the  conic  sections 
either  to  the  echinus  cimarecta  or  cimareversa,  an  endless  variety  of 
beautiful  outlines  may  be  obtained. 

To  describe  the  cimareversa,  fig.  5,  divide  A  B  and  3  D  each  into 
a  like  number  of  equal  parts,  into  six  for  instance,  as  here,  and  draw 
A  I,  A  2,  A  3,  and  C  1,  C  2,  C  3;  then  trace  the  curve  as  before  di- 
rected. 


12  TUSCAN  ORDER. 

To  describe  a  scotia,  fig.  6,  join  the  ends  of  each  fillet  by  the 
right  line  A  B  ;  bisect  A  B  at  D  ;  through  D  draw  CDF  parallel 
to  the  fillets,  and  C  D  and  D  F,  each  equal  to  the  depth  of  the  sco- 
tia ;  divide  D  A,  D  B,  A  G  and  B  F,  each  into  the  same  number  of 
equal  parts  ;  from  E,  and  through  1  2  3  on  A  G,  and  also  through  1 
2  3  on  B  F,  draw  lines.  Then,  from  the  point  C,  and  through  the 
points  1  2  3  on  the  line  A  B,  draw  lines,  cutting  the  former  lines  at 
12  3  4  5  6,  and  trace  the  curve  through  those  points. 


TUSCAN    ORDER. 


PLATE    III. 

The  Tuscan  order  is  nearly  the  same  in  its  proportions  as  the 
Doric.  Of  this  order  we  have  no  complete  example  remaining  from 
antique  buildings.  There  is  one  given  by  Vitruvius,  from  whom  we 
derive  all  we  know  concerning  the  origin  of  the  order,  of  which  the 
column  is  seven  diameters  high,  including  base  and  capital,  and  di- 
minishes one  fourth  part  of  its  lower  diameter.  But  the  cornice  pro- 
jects more  than  one  fourth  part  of  the  height  of  the  column,  which 
renders  the  example  unfit  for  our  practice. 

In  the  example  here  given,  I  have,  in  imitation  of  Vitruvius,  made 
the  column  seven  diameters  high,  including  base  and  capital,  and 
the  entablature  two  diameters  ;  although  in  practice  I  do  not  always 
follow  this  rule,  since,  in  different  situations,  both  column  and  entab- 
lature require  different  proportions.  They  should  in  all  cases  be 
proportioned  according  to  the  weight,  or  apparent  weight,  which 
they  have  to  sustain.  It  will  sometimes  be  convenient  to  loAver  the 
entablature,  in  which  case  it  may  be  reduced   to  one   hundred   and 


TUSCAIN    ORDER.  13 

ten  minutes,  (^r  any  where  between  one  hundred  and  ten  and  one 
hundred  and  twenty,  taken  in  about  equal  proportions  ffom  the 
frieze  and  architrave,  and  leaving  the  cornice  its  full  proportions. 
The  base  given  in  this  example  may,  when  expense  is  to  be  avoided, 
be  kept  oflf  with  propriety  ;  and  particularly  when  the  column  is  seven 
diameters  or  less.  The  mouldings  in  the  capital  and  cornice  are 
Grecian,  although  the  order  is  of  Roman  origin. 

To  draw  the  Tuscan  order  to  any  given  height,  the  height  given 
must  be  divided  into  nine  equal  parts,  because,  the  column  being 
seven  and  the  entablature  two  diameters,  one  ninth  of  the  height  is 
the  diameter  of  the  column  just  above  the  base.  Suppose  it  be  re- 
quired to  find  the  diameter  of  the  column  to  a  height  of  twenty-one 
feet.  One  ninth  of  twenty-one  feet  is  two  feet  four  inches.  Of  that 
length  make  a  scale  of  sixty  equal  parts,  which  are  called  minutes. 
First  divide  two  feet  four  inches  into  six  equal  parts,  like  the  scale 
a  b  ;  then  divide  a  10  into  two  equal  parts,  and  a  5  into  five  parts. 
Each  of  the  last  divisions  will  be  one  minute,  or  a  sixtieth  part  of 
the  diameter  of  the  column. 

Under  H  and  against  each  member  of  the  order  is  figured  the 
number  of  minutes  in  their  respective  heights,  and  under  P,  the 
number  of  minutes  which  each  member  projects.  The  measures  of 
the  order  are  to  be  taken  from  the  scale  of  minutes  above,  as  will 
be  seen  by  the  following  directions  given  for  drawing  the  base. 
Against  the  plinth  c  d  is  fifteen  minutes ;  take  fifteen  minutes  from 
your  scale,  and  set  it  down  on  a  vertical  line  drawn  for  the  side  of 
the  column.  Against  the  torus  is  twelve  minutes ;  set  that  down 
on  the  same  line  ;  and  against  the  fillet  ef  is  three  minutes  ;  set  that 
down  also.  Under  P  and  against  the  plinth  at  g  is  ten  minutes,  the 
projection  of  the  plinth ;  set  that  down  at  right  angles  with  the  coJ- 
4 


f4  DORIC    ORDER. 

umn,  and  draw  the  line  g  across  the  phnth.  Against  the  torus  at 
h  is  ten  minutes,  its  projection ;  with  six  minutes  in  your  compasses 
describe  the  half  circle,  which  completes  the  torus.  Against  the 
fillet  at  i  is  four  minutes,  which  set  oif  for  its  projection  ;  then,  with 
four  and  a  half  minutes  in  your  compasses,  describe  the  part  of  a 
circle  which  joins  the  fillet  to  the  column,  and  the  base  is  complet- 
ed. Go  on  in  the  same  way  to  describe  the  remaining  part  of  the 
order. 

A  is  a  section  of  the  cornice  showing  the  bedmould  recessed  up 
into  the  sofiit  of  the  corona. 

B  is  a  section  of  the  band  to  the  architrave. 

C  is  the  capital  drawn  on  a  large  scale  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
the  exact  curve  of  the  ovolo. 


GRECIAN  DORIC    ORDER. 


PLATE   IV. 

FIG.  1. 

The  district  of  Argolis  first  received  colonies  who  mtroduced 
civilization  into  Greece.  It  has  been  reckoned  the  cradle  of  the 
Greeks,  the  theatre  of  the  events  which  produced  their  earliest  an- 
nals, and  the  country  which  produced  their  first  heroes  and  artists. 
It  was  in  the  temple  of  Juno  at  Argos,  where  the  Doric  order  first 
arose  to  a  marked  eminence,  and  became  the  model  for  the  magnifi- 
cent edifices  afterwards  erected  in  the  other  cities,  states,  and  islands. 
After  the  Doric  order  had  been  established  in  the  temple  of  Juno  at 
Argos,  it  was  employed  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Nemeus,  between 
Argos    and   Corinth  ;  Jupiter    Olympius,   at    Olympia   in    Elis  ;    in    a 


DORIC  ORDER.  15 

splendid  triple  portico  in  the  city  of  Elis  ;  and  also  in  three  temples 
in  the  same  city,  to  Juno,  Minerva,  and  Dindymene  ;  at  Eleusis,  in 
the  great  temple  to  Ceres ;  in  that  of  Minerva,  at  Sunium ;  in  the 
temple  of  Minerva  Parthenon ;  in  the  temple  of  Theseus  ;  in  the 
entrance  to  the  Acropohs,  and  other  public  edifices,  of  great  magni- 
tude and  splendor,  at  Athens.  In  many  of  the  islands  there  were 
also  temples  of  the  Doric  model ;  that  of  Apollo  in  the  isle  of  Delos ; 
Juno  in  Samos ;  Jupiter  Panellenius,  JEg'ma.,  and  Silenus,  in  Sicily ; 
and  innumerable  in  places  of  inferior  note.  Even  in  Ionia,  it  was 
employed  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  Panionius.  Many  of  these  edifices 
were  of  great  magnitude.  The  temples  of  the  Greeks  were  univer- 
sally of  an  oblong  form  ;  in  some,  the  porticos  were  at  the  ends  only  ; 
in  others,  they  were  extended  quite  around  the  cell,  some  in  single, 
others  in  double  ranges ;  some  were  covered  with  roofs,  others 
were  left  partly  uncovered  ;  and  some  of  them  were  divided  by  ranges 
of  pillars  along  the  middle  of  the  cell.  The  superstructure  was  pla- 
ced upon  a  platform  composed  of  three  steps,  which  surrounded  the 
whole  edifice,  and  upon  which  the  columns  were  all  placed  without 
bases.  The  number  of  columns  was  either  six  along  the  ends  and 
thirteen  along  the  sides,  or  eight  along  the  ends  and  seventeen  along 
the  sides,  counting  the  angular  columns  twice.  When  formed  upon 
so  large  a  scale  and  the  ranges  of  columns  so  distinctly  insulated, 
and  when  artists  of  the  first  talents  not  only  formed  the  models  of 
the  edifice,  and  directed  its  execution,  but  also,  under  the  strongest 
influence  of  rivalship  and  thirst  of  glory,  with  their  own  hands  clothed 
those  edifices  with  sculptures,  and  enriched  them  with  statues,  under 
these  circumstances  the  essential  parts  of  the  Doric  order  produced 
effects  not  to  be  exceeded  for  simplicity  and  majesty. 

That  the    proportion  which  the  different  members  of  the    Doric 


16 


DORIC    ORDER. 


order  bore  to  each  other  was  practised  by  the  Greeks  with  consider  ■ 
able  latitude,  and  that  the  ancients  did  not  scrupulously  adhere  to 
any  precise  proportion,  will  be  evident  from  the  following  table, 
which  exhibits  the  dimensions  of  the  principal  parts  of  this  order  in 
many  of  the  ancient  Greek  edifices,  which  have  been  examuied  with 
accuracy.  The  dimensions  here  put  down  are  in  diameters  and 
minutes. 
A  Table  of  the  Proportions  of  the  Doric  Order  of  Architecture. 


Names  of  Examples. 


Portico  of  the  Agora,  at  Athens  .  . 
Temple  of  Minerva,  at  Sunium  .  . 
Temple  of  Jupiter  NenicEus  .  .  . 
Temple  of  Jupiter  Panellenius     .     . 

Temple  of  Theseus 

Temple  of  Minerva,  at  Athens    .     . 

Temple  at  Corinth 

Portico  of  Philip 

Temple  of  Apollo 

Temple  of  Minerva,  at  Syracuse  .  . 
Temple  of  Juna  Lucina     .     .     .     . 

Temple  of  Concord 

Pseudo-Dipteral  Temple,  at  Psestum 
Hexastyle  Temple,  at  P.-cstum  .  . 
Hypaethral  Temple,  at  Pscstum  .  . 
Inner  Peristyle  of  ditto  .  .  .  . 
Upper  cohmins  of  ditto,  ditto 

Temple  at  Selinus 

Temple  of  Jupiter,  at  Selinus  .     .     . 

Temple  at  ^gesta 

Theatre  of  Marcelius 


S  5 
2  <5 

a 


Min. 


60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
(iO 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 


Min. 


o  c 
'5j  o 


Diam.  Min. 


47 

45f 

49 

44^ 

46f 

47 

44f 

494 

424 

46" 

45^ 

46 

40^ 

43 

41i 

43 

Ui 

46 

35^ 

44f 

48 


oi 


6 

5  54 

6  31 
5  24 


Min. 


42^ 

334 
4' 


6  324 

6   3| 


24^ 

42 

45^ 

27 

47f 

8 

13i 
50 
21J 


7  51J 


40 

484 

38f 

5H 

50 

43 

48f 

384 

49| 

444 

55' 

46i 

50 

45f 

42^ 

89 

68 

46i 

52 

49£ 

30 


Min. 


42 

484 

43i 

514 

49| 

43 


21 


32 


43i 
424 
40 
45 

46i 


44f 

404 


44§ 
44f 
52f 
45| 


!54 


24f 

21^ 


S-5 


Diam.  Min. 


1  28 

1  41 

1  37^ 

1  17f 

1  14 

2  42f 


1 


54 


1  15 


lOf 

H 

4f 


26 

40f 

57| 


1  22f 

2  49 

1   2i 


1  11 


In  every   Greek  Doric,  the  vertical  face  of  the  architrave  projects 
beyond  the  inferior  diameter,  but  is  within  the  superior  one.     In  the 

*  Where  the  members  have  not  been  measured,  they  ire  noted  in  the  table  by  this  mark, . 


ri.i. 


rill.  1 


Fill.  y. 


/»/  -/. 


Fi,,.  0. 


./~ 


,'    I' 


Till.  11- 


r„t  1 

1 

1 

/ 

^^^ 

1               :'               J               (1 

Fi,/.  / 


Fi./.o. 


TF  S  C.-\S"     O  ]R  15  3!  -K. . 


PI,.  :s. 


!»     I  U 


10 


11 

30      : ^</ 


!r  10  IS 


? 

tt> 

■JO 

JO 

« 

Sc 

He 

mill 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

\b 

llillllilllBIlillllll 


|llP|i!:| Illlllil 


■"lliHIIIII 


r 

liiiiiiiiiia 


liiillllJ: 


1 

V 

i   . 

y. 

1 

zr 

1 


T<  1  <('        O  ]R   11^    iK  K  _  Kroin    iIm-    I'.iii  |.l.-   .il    TIk-siis    ,il    AiImmis. 


imraiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii:i|i|{iiii{{|||itiifii 


illltl!liliiii|iililiPi!lil!Pflllliiii««' 


31     .•>#>■.    Ill 


Ui«j       'e-i 


ii' 


_      Fi//.X 


Ti,,.  2. 

•'O 

o 

@ 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

G 

G 

o. 

o 

G 

^• 

'^ 

,^ 

o 

■^ 

,"■    " 

o 

o 

'.--. 

o 

o 

G 

o 

o 

G 

o 

o 

G 

r\ 

,--%, 

o  o  o  o  o  o 

OOOOOG 

\ 

'"' ';'  o  o  o  o 

DORIC    ORDER.  I7 

temple  of  Corinth,  and  the  Doric  portico  at  Athens,  the  ovolo  or 
echinus  is  of  an  elliptical  shape  ;  but  in  every  other  instance  of  Greek 
capitals,  it  is  hyperbolical,  excepting  the  single  instance  of  the  porti- 
co of  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  which  is  a  straight  line. 

The  nuinber  of  annulets  in  the  capital  varies  from  three  to  five  ; 
and  the  number  of  horizontal  grooves  which  separate  the  shaft  from 
the  capital  varies  from  one  to  three. 

Elevation  of  the  Doric  Order  on  the  Temple  of  Theseus  at  Athens. 

This  temple  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  beautiful  examples  of 
that  order  now  existing.  It  was  erected  about  ten  years  after  tho 
battle  of  Salamis,  by  Cimon,  the  son  of  Miltiades.  The  ceiling  of 
the  porch  is  remarkable  for  its  construction,  having  large  beams  of 
marble  with  the  upper  sides  level  with  the  bed  of  the  cornice,  and 
the  ends  corresponding  exactly  to  the  triglyphs  in  the  frieze,  which 
gives  the  idea  of  the  disposition  of  the  timbers  first  used  in  building-.s, 
and  from  which  the  Doric  order  had  its  origin.  This  building  is 
adorned  with  beautiful  sculpture.  The  metopes  of  the  frieze  are 
charged  with  historical  figures,  in  which  are  represented  various 
exploits  of  Theseus. 

The  height  of  the  column  is  five  diameters  and  forty-two  and  tv 
half  minutes,  and  that  of  the  entablature  two  diameters  and  ten 
minutes,  so  that  column  and  entablature,  both  together,  are  seven  di- 
ameters and  fifty-two  and  a  half  minutes.  If  the  column  was  seven 
and  a  half  minutes  higher  than  it  is,  its  diameter  would  be  one  eighth 
part  of  the  entire  height ;  and  it  will  be  near  enough  in  practice  to 
divide  the  whole  height  into  eight  parts  ;  then,  giving  one  part  to  the 
diameter  of  the  column,  proceed  to  draw  it  as  before  directed  in  the 
5 


,_  DORIC   ORDER. 

Tuscan    order.      The   column  diminishes  thirteen  minutes,  and  its 
sides  are  composed  of  straight  hnes  or  those  gently  curved. 

Ficr   2  is  a  plan  of  the  soffit  inverted,  showing  the  distribution  of 
the  drops,  which  are  two  and  a  half  minutes  in  diameter,  and  one  and 

a  half  in  length. 

Fiff   3  is  a  section  of  the  cymatium  on  a  large  scale. 

Fig.  4  shows  the  capital  on  a  large  scale,  in  which  the  cantor   of 
the  ovolo,  and  also  the  shape  of  the  annulets,  are  more  plainly  seen. 


ROMAN    DORIC    ORDER. 


Doric  Order,  as  approved  by  Sir  William  Chambers. 

-  Vignola's  Doric  being  composed  in  a  greater  style,  and  in  a  man- 
ner more  characteristic  of  the  order,  than  any  other,  I  have  chosen 
it  for  my  model ;  though,  in  particular  members,  I  have  not  scrupled 
to  vary,  when  observation  taught  me  they  might  be  improved 

-  Perfect  proportion,  in  architecture,  if  considered  only  with  regard 
to  the  relations  between  the  different  objects  in   the  composition,  and 
as  it  merely  relates  to  the  pleasure  of  the  sight,  seems   to  consist  in 
this  •  that  those  parts  which   are  either  principal  or   essential,  should 
be  contrived  to  catch  the  eye  successively,  from  the  most  considera- 
ble  to  the   least,   according   to   their  degrees  of  importance   in   the 
composition,  and  impress  their  images  on  the  mind,  before   it  is   af- 
fected by  any  of  the  subservient  members ;  yet,  that  these  should  be 
so  conditioned,  as  not  to  be  entirely  absorbed,  but  be  capable  of  rais- 
ing distinct  ideas  likewise,  and  such  as  may  be  adequate  to  the  pur- 
poses for  which  these  parts  are  designed. 


DORIC  ORDER.  19 

"  The  different  figures  and  situations  of  the  parts  may,  in  some  de- 
gree, contribute  to  this  effect ;  for  simple  forms  will  operate  more 
speedily  than  those  that  are  complicated,  and  such  as  project  will 
be  sooner  perceived  than  such  as  are  more  retired  ;  but  dimension 
seems  to  be  the  predominant  quality,  or  that  which  acts  most  power- 
fully on  the  sense  ;  and  this,  it  is  apprehended,  can  only  be  discovered 
by  experience ;  at  least  to  any  degree  of  accuracy.  When,  there- 
fore, a  number  of  parts,  arranged  in  a  particular  manner,  and  under 
particular  dimensions,  excite,  in  the  generality  of  judicious  specta- 
tors, a  pleasing  sensation,  it  will  be  prudent,  on  every  occasion  where 
the  same  circumstances  subsist,  to  observe  exactly  the  same  arrange- 
ment and  proportions  ;  notwithstanding  they  may  in  themselves  appear 
irregular,  and  unconnected. 

"  In  composing  the  orders  and  other  decorations  which  are  contain- 
ed in  the  present  publication,  this  method  has  constantly  been  ob- 
served ;  the  author  having  himself,  with  that  view,  measured  with 
the  utmost  accuracy,  and  not  without  some  danger,  many  ancient  and 
modern  celebrated  buildings,  both  at  Rome  and  in  other  parts  of 
Europe  ;  strictly  copying  such  things  as  appeared  to  be  perfect,  and 
carefully  correcting  others,  which  seemed  in  any  degree  faulty,  rely- 
ing therein  not  alone  on  his  own  judgment,  in  doubtful  cases,  but 
much  on  the  opinion  and  advice  of  several  learned,  ingenious  artists 
of  different  nations,  with  whom  he  had  the  advantage  of  being  in- 
timately connected  when  abroad. 

"  The  height  of  the  Doric  column,  including  its  capital  and  base, 
is  sixteen  modules  ;  and  the  height  of  the  entablature,  four  modules  ; 
the  latter  of  which  being  divided  into  eight  parts,  two  of  them  are 
given  to  the  architrave,  three  to  the  frieze,  and  the  remaining  three 
to  the  cornice. 

"  In  most  of  the  antiques,  the  Doric  column  is  executed  without  a 


2Q  DORIC   ORDER. 

base ;    Vitruvius  likewise  makes  it   without  one,  the  base,  according 
to  thlt  author,  having  been  first  employed  in  the   Ionic  order,  to   imi- 
tate the  sandal  or  covering  to   a  woman's  foot.      Scammozzi  blames 
this  practice  ;  and  most  of  the  moderns  have  been  of  his  opinion,  the 
greatest  part  of  them  having  employed  the  Attic  base   in   this  order. 
Monsieur   de    Chambray,  however,  whose  blind   attachment  to  the 
antique  is,  on  many  occasions,  sufficiently  evident,  argues  vehement- 
ly against  this  practice,  which,  as  the  order  is  formed  upon  the  model 
of  a  strong   man,  who   is   constantly  represented   barefooted,  is,  ac- 
cording to  him,  very  improper ;  and  '  though,'  says  he,  '  the  custom 
of   employing   a  base,  in   contempt  of  all  ancient  authority,  has,  by 
some    unaccountable  and  false  notions  of   beauty,   prevailed,  yet,  I 
doubt  not  but  the  purer  eye,  when  apprized  of  this  error,  will  easily  be 
undeceived  ;  and  as  what   is   merely  plausible  will,  when   examined, 
appear  to  be  false,  so  apparent  beauties,  when  not  founded  in  reason, 
will  of  course  be  deemed  extravagant.' 

"  In  imitation  of  Palladio,  and  all  the  modern  architects  except  Vig- 
nola,  I  have  made  use  of  the  Attic  base  in  this  order  :  and  it  certain- 
ly is  the  most  beautiful  of  any  ;  though,  for  variety's  sake,  when  the 
Doric  and  Ionic  orders  are  employed  together,  the  base  invented  by 
Vignola,  of  which  a  profile  is  annexed,  may  sometimes  be  used. 
Bernini  has  employed  it  in  the  colonnades  of  St.  Peter's,  and  it  has 
been  successfully  applied  in  many  other  buildings. 

"  The  ancients  sometimes  made  the  shafts  of  the  Doric  column 
prismatic,  as  appears  by  a  passage  in  the  fourth  book  of  Vitruvius : 
and  at  other  times  they  adorned  it  with  a  particular  kind  of  shallow 
flutings,  described  from  the  centre  of  a  square,  no  interval  or  fillet 
being^left  between  them.  Of  this  sort  there  are  now  some  columns  to 
be  seen  in  the  temples  of  Pestum,  near  Naples  ;  in  different  parts 
of  Sicily ;  and  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter  in  Catenis,  at  Rome. 


DORIC    ORDER.  21 

"  Vitruvius  gives  to  the  height  of  the  Doric  capital  one  module ; 
and  all  the  moderns,  except  Alberti,  have  foUow^ed  his  example. 
Nevertheless,  as  it  is  of  the  same  kind  with  the  Tuscan,  they  should 
both  bear  nearly  the  same  proportion  to  the  heights  of  their  respect- 
ive columns  ;  and,  consequently,  the  Doric  capital  ought  to  be  more 
than  one  module,  which  it  accordingly  is,  both  at  the  Cohseum  and 
in  the  theatre  of  Marcellus ;  being,  in  the  former  of  these  buildings, 
upwards  of  thirty-eight  minutes,  and  in  the  latter,  thirty-three 
minutes  high. 

"  In  the  design  here  offered,  I  have  made  the  height  of  the  whole 
capital  thirty-two  minutes,  and,  in  the  form  and  dimensions  of  the 
particular  members,  I  have  deviated  but  little  from  the  profile  of  the 
theatre  of  Marcellus.  The  frieze  or  neck  is  enriched  with  husks 
and  roses,'  as  in  Palladio's  design,  and  as  it  has  been  executed  by 
Sangallo  at  the  Farnese  palace  in  Rome,  and  by  CigoH  in  the  Cor- 
tile  of  the  Strozzi  at  Florence,  as  well  as  in  several  buildings  of  note 
in  this  metropolis.  The  projection  of  these  husks  and  flowers  must 
not  exceed  that  of  the  upper  cincture  of  the  column. 

"  The  architrave  is  one  module  in  height,  and  composed  only  of  one 
fascia  and  a  fillet,  as  at  the  theatre  of  Marcellus ;  the  drops  are  coni- 
cal, as  they  are  in  all  the  antiques  ;  not  pyramidal,  as  they  are  im- 
properly made  by  most  of  our  Enghsh  workmen  ;  they  are  supposed 
to  represent  drops  of  water  draining  from  the  triglyph,  and,  conse- 
quently, they  should  be  cones,  or  parts  of  cones,  not  pyramids. 

"The  frieze  and  the  cornice  are  each  of  them  one  module  and  a  half 
m  height ;  the  metope  is  square,  and  enriched  with  a  bull's  scull,  adorn- 
ed with  garlands  of  beads,  in  imitation  of  those  on  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Tonans,  at  the  foot  of  the  capital.     In  some  antique  fragments,  and  in 

*The  hueka,  roses  and  ox  sculls,  are  left  off  in  this  example. 

6 


22 


DORIC   ORDER. 


a  greater  number  of  modern  buildings,  the  metopes  are  alternately 
enriched  with  these  ox  sculls,  and  with  pateras  ;  but  they  may  be 
filled  with  any  other  ornaments  of  good  forms,  and  frequently  with 
greater  propriety. 

"  Thus,  in  miUtary  structures,  heads  of  Medusa,  or  of  the  Furies, 
thunderbolts,  and  other  symbols  of  horror,  may  be  introduced ;  like- 
wise helmets,  daggers,  garlands  of  laurel  or  oak,  and  crowns  of  va- 
rious kinds,  such  as  those  used  among  the  Romans,  and  given  as  re- 
wards for  different  military  achievements  ;  but  spears,  swords,  quivers, 
bows,  cuirasses,  shields  and  the  like,  must  be  avoided,  because  the 
real  dimensions  of  these  things  are  too  considerable  to  find  admit- 
tance in  such  small  compartments  ;  and  representations  in  miniature 
always  carry  with  them  an  idea  of  triviality,  carefully  to  be  avoided 
in  architecture,  as  in  all  other  arts.  In  sacred  buildings,  cherubs, 
chalices,  and  garlands  of  palm  or  olive,  may  be  employed  ;  likewise 
doves,  or  other  symbols  of  moral  virtues.  And  in  private  houses,  crests 
or  badges  of  dignity  may  sometimes  be  suffered,  though  seldom,  and 
indeed  never,  when  they  are  of  stiff,  insipid  forms. 

"  Too  miich  variety  in  the  ornaments  of  the  metopes  must  be  avoid- 
ed, lest  the  unity  of  the  composition  shoidd  be  destroyed.  It  is  best 
never  to  introduce  more  than  two  different  representations,  which 
should  not  consist  of  above  one,  or  at  most  two  objects  each,  of*  sim- 
ple forms,  and  not  overcharged  with  ornaments.  In  the  disposition 
of  these,  care  must  be  taken  to  place  them  with  regard  to  symmetry ; 
those  on  the  right  in  correspondence  with  those  on  the  left.  Where- 
fore, when  a  triglyph  happens  to  be  in  the  middle  of  a  front,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  couple  the  middle  ones,  by  filling  the  two  met- 
opes, on  each  side  of  the  central  triglyph,  with  the  same  sort  of 
ornaments  ;  distributing  the  rest  alternately  as  usual.     It  is  likewise 


DORIC   ORDER.  23 

to  be  observed,  that  ornaments  in  metopes  are  not  to  project  beyond 
the  triglyphs,  which  ought  to  predominate,  as  being  essential  and 
principal  parts  in  the  composition.  Palladio,  in  his  Basihca  of  Vi- 
cenza,  has  given  to  the  most  elevated  part  of  the  ox  sculls  and  pa- 
teras,  with  which  the  metopes  are  filled,  very  little  more  projection 
than  that  of  the  triglyph ;  and  in  this  he  has  copied  the  ancients,  who 
seldom  or  never  gave  more  projection  to  any  ornament,  than  that  of 
the  frame  or  border  in  which  it  was  enclosed ;  as  appears  by  those 
inimitable  fragments  in  the  Villa  Medici,  and  many  others  in  different 
parts  of  Rome,  and  elsewhere.  The  channels  of  the  triglyph,  on 
their  plan,  commonly  form  a  right  angle  ;  but,  to  give  them  more 
effect,  a  narrow  square  groove  may  be  cut  in  the  inner  angle,  from 
top  to  bottom,  and  into  the  solid  of  the  frieze. 

i  "  In  the  cornice,  I  have  deviated  very  little  from  my  original.  Le 
Clerc,  who,  in  his  Doric  profile,  has  imitated  that  of  Vignola,  makes 
the  mutules  as  broad  as   the   capital  of  the   triglyph.     But  Vignola's 

\  method  is  preferable,  vrho  makes  them  no  broader  than  the  triglyph  : 
as  it  is  more  sightly  and  more  conformable  to  the  carpenter's  art,  in 
which  the  width  of  the  rafter  never  exceeds  the  width  of  the  beam 
or  joist  it  stands  upon.  The  ornaments  of  the  soffit  are  nearly  the 
same  as  those  of  Vignola.  They  should  be  entirely  sunk  up,  wrought 
in  the  solid  of  the  corona,  and  never  drop  down  lower  than  its  soffit. 
There  is  no  necessity  for  cutting  them  deep  :  in  most  of  Palladio's 
buildings,  they  do  not  enter  above  two  minutes  into  the  corona,  and 
that  is  quite  sufficient. 

"  Of  all  the  entablatures,  the  Doric  is  most  difficult  to  distribute,  on 
account  of  the  large  intervals  between  the  centres  of  the  triglyphs, 
which  neither  admit  of  increase  or  diminution,  without  injuring  the 
symmetry  and  regular  beauty  of  the  composition.     These  constant- 


24  DORIC   ORDER. 

ly  confine  the  composer  to  intercolumniations,  divisible  by  two  mod-  • 
xdes   and     a    half,   entirely   exclude   coupled    columns,   and    produce 
spaces  which,  in  general,  are  either  too  wide  or   too  narrow  for   his 

purposes. 

"  To  obviate  these  difficulties,  the  triglyphs  have  often  been  omit- 
ted, and  the  entablature  made  plain,  as  at  the  Coliseum  in  Rome, 
the'  colonnades  of  St.  Peter's,  of  the  Vatican,  and  in  many  other 
buildings  both  at  home  and  abroad.  This,  indeed,  is  an  easy  expe- 
'dient;  but,  while  it  robs  the  order  of  its  principal  characteristic  dis- 
tinction, leaves  it  poor,  and  very  little  superior  to  the  Tuscan.  The 
remedy  seems  desperate,  and  should  never  be  employed  but  as  a  last 

resource. 

"  The  ancients  employed  the  Doric  in  temples  dedicated  to  Miner- 
va, to  Mars,  and  to  Hercules,  whose  grave  and  manly  dispositions 
suited  well  with  the  character  of  this  order.  Serlio  says  it  is  proper 
for  churches  dedicated  to  Jesus  Christ,  to  St.  Paul,  St.  Peter,  or 
any  other  saints  remarkable  for  their  fortitude  in  exposing  their 
lives,  and  suffering  for  the  Christian  faith.  Le  Clerc  recommends 
the  use  of  it  in  all  kinds  of  military  buildings,  as  arsenals,  gates  of 
fortified  places,  guard-rooms,  and  similar  structures.  It  may  likewise 
be  employed  in  the  houses  of  generals,  or  other  martial  men,  in  mau- 
soleums erected  to  their  memory,  or  in  triumphal  bridges  and  arches, 
built  to  celebrate  their  victories. 

"  I  have  made  the  height  of  the  Doric  column  sixteen  modnles : 
which,  in  buildings  where  majesty  or  grandeur  are  required,  is  a 
proper  proportion  ;  but  in  others,  it  may  be  somewhat  more  slender. 
Thus  Vitruvius  makes  the  Doric  column  in  porticos  higher  by  hall 
a  diameter  than  in  temples  ;  and  most  of  the  modern  architects  have, 
on  some  occasions,  followed  his   example.     In   private  houses,  there- 


B  tHKl  V      OJiDEK  ,:ls   approved  by  Sii  ^\'.  Hiauibfrs. 


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DORIC    ORDER  25 

fore,  it  may  be  sixteen  and  a  third,  sixteen  and  a  half,  or  sixteen 
and  two  thirds,  modules  high,  in  interior  decorations  even  seventeen 
modules,  and  sometimes,  perhaps,  a  trifle  more  ;  which  increase  in 
the  height  may  be  added  entirely  to  the  shaft,  without  changing  either 
the  base  or  capital.  The  entablature,  too,  may  remain  unaltered  in 
all  the  aforesaid  cases ;  for  it  will  be  sufficiently  bold  without  altera- 
tion."— Chambers  on  Civil  Architecture. 


DORIC    ORDER,    EXAMPLE    No.    3. 


PLATE   VI. 

This  example  is  compiled  chiefly  from  the  best  Grecian  specimens 
of  the  Doric  order,  with  such  alterations,  as,  it  was  thought,  would 
render  it  more  simple,  less  expensive,  and  better  adapted  to  the  mate- 
rials of  which  it  is  usually  composed  in  this  country. 

In  the  capital  the  annulets  have  been  changed  for  those  of  the  Roman 
character,  because  it  is   supposed  that  the   annulets  of  the  Grecian 
Doric  are  too  small   and  indistinct  to  comport  with  the  other   mem- 
bers of  that  massive  composition.     Not  that  the  Grecian  annulets  are 
not,  of  themselves,  beautiful ;  but,  their  number  being  constantly  from 
three  to  five,  and  the  space  they  occupy  not  generally  exceeding  two 
minutes,  when  three,  the  smallest  number,  are  used,  it  requires  nine 
hues  for  angles  to  separate  them  from  each   other   and  the   adjoining 
members,  which  lines,  or  angles,  if  equally  divided,  could  not  occupy 
a  larger  space  than  one  fourth  of  a  minute  each.      It  is  therefore  evi- 
dent that,  when  the  column,  which  they  adorn,  is  not  of  large  dimen- 
sions, they  must,  from  the  smallness  of  their  size,  and  the  small  space 
which  they  occupy,  appear  confused  and  indistinct. 
7 


an  DORIC    ORDER. 

26 


In  practice,  I  have  sometimes  retained  the  Grecian  arrangement  of 
the  annulets,  but  reduced  their  number  to  two,  and  made  them  occupy 
a  space  of  two  and  a  half  minutes.     In  imitation  of  the  Roman  and 
modern  practice,  the  faces  of  the  frize  and  architrave  are  both  m  the 
same  plane.     The  face  of  the  architrave,  and  those  of  the  triglyphs, 
were  likewise  in  the  same  plane  in  the  best  specimens  of  the  Grecian 
Doric  •  but,  in  order  to  have  these  in  the  same  plane,  the  frize  must  be 
recessed  back  the  whole  thickness  of  the  triglyph-a  practice  which 
would  be  inconvenient  for  us,  when  the  material  is  of  wood,  because  a 
difficulty  will  then  exist  in  preventing  leakage  between  the  fnze  and 
architrave ;  whereas,  in  the  former  practice,  that  difficulty  was  removed 
by  the  tenia  covering  and  securing  the  joint  between  the  frize  and 

architrave. 

The  size  and  form  of  the  drops  below  the  triglyphs  have  been  made 
to  assume  the  Roman  character,  because  those  in  the  Grecian  exam- 
ples are  supposed  to  be  too  small  and  indistinct.     The  mutules  over 
the  metopes  have  been  left  off  in  further  imitation  of  the  Romans  ; 
and,  where  simphcity  only  is  desired,  it  is  believed  that  object  is  ob- 
tained with  one  over  each  triglyph.     As   practice  seems  to  require 
that  some  determinate  height  should  be  given  to  the  column,  in  com- 
pliance thereto,  I  give  it  seven  diameters  including  its  capital.     This 
is  a  h.rhter  proportion  than  the  Greek,  but  heavier  than  the  Roman. 
The  entablature  is  two  diameters  in  height.     The  shaft  of  the  col- 
umn is  decorated   with  twenty  flutes   without  fillets,  the  sections  ot 
which,   when  made  of  wood,  may  be   segments   of  circles,  or  nearly 
so,  because,  if  made  of  a  part  of  an  ellipsis,  as  in  the  Greek  origmal, 
there  will  not  be  sufficient  strength  in  the  wood  to  prevent  the  edges 
between  the  flutes  from  fracture ;  when  the  material  is  stone,  or  iron, 
they  should  invariably  form  a  part  of  an  ellipsis,  as  the  eff-ect  produced 


DORIC   ORDER.  27 

thereby  is  more  beautiful  than  that  of  the  stiff,  tasteless  segment 
of  a  circle.  The  shaft  of  the  column  diminishes  thirteen  minutes,  and 
the  line  of  its  sides  may  be  straight,  or,  which  is  preferable,  slightly 
curved,  the  convex  side  of  the  curve  turning  outward.  The  triglyphs 
in  the  frize  are  thirty  minutes  in  front,  and  their  distance  from  each 
other,  reckoning  from  the  centre  of  each,  is  seventy-five  minutes. 

Fig.  1  represents  a  drop  of  the  mutule,  the  corona,  cimatium  and 
the  ovolo. 

Fig.  2  represents   the  capital  on  a  large  scale,  figured  in  minutes. 

The  curves  of  these  mouldings  have  been  carefully  drawn,  and  it 
is  believed  that  they  will  appear  very  gracefiil,  if  correctly  imitated. 

A,  on  fig.  2,  "shows  that  the  face  of  the  architrave  is  in  a  vertical 
fine  with  the  upper  fillet  of  the  capital,  which  projects  three  and  a 
half  minutes  from  the  neck  of  the  column. 

In  the  Roman  and  modern  examples,  a  difficulty  exists,  where  col- 
umns and  undiminished  pilasters  were  employed  in  supporting  the 
same  entablature,  because  there  is  given  to  the  pilasters  the  lame 
diameter  as  to  the  column,  and  the  lower  fascia  of  the  architrave  is 
situated  in  a  vertical  line  with  the  neck  of  the  column.  It  therefore 
happens  that  the  neck  of  the  pilaster  projects  beyond  the  face  of  the 
architrave ;  which  defect  they  endeavor  to  avoid  by  diminishing  the 
pilaster.  But  pilasters  of  the  same  diameter  with  the  columns  have 
the  appearance  of  being  larger  than  the  columns,  on  account  of  their 
form  being  angular,  and  that  of  the  column  round;  and  a  pilaster  cer- 
tainly is  larger,  viewed  from  any  other  situation  than  directly  in  front. 

I  have,  in  this  example,  endeavored  to  avoid  both  defects,  by  mak- 
ing the  diameter  of  the  pilaster  equal  to  that  of  the  upper  fillet  of 
the  capital,  which,  in  this  order,  is  fifty-four  minutes  ;  so  that  the 
lower  fascia  of  the  architrave  is  in  a  vertical  line  with  the  neck  of 


28  RAKING  MOULDINGS. 

the  pilaster.     What  is  here  said  with  regard  to  the  diameter  of  pi- 
lasters will  apply  to  both  the  Tuscan  and  Ionic  orders. 

It  will  be  observed,  by  reading  the  description  of  pediments,  that 
the  Grecians  never  employed  either  rautules,  dentils  or  modillions  in 
the  cornices  of  the  sloping  sides  of  their  pediments.  I  have  therefore, 
on  plate  34,  fig.  1,  given  an  example  of  a  cornice  suitably  constructed 
for  that  purpose,  which  is  figured  in  minutes. 


RAKING    MOULDINGS 


PLATE   VII. 

FIG.  1. 

Let  A  be  the  given  moulding,  B  the  raking  moulding,  and  C  the 
return  moulding.  Draw  a  9  in  A,  a  9  in  B,  and  «  9  in  C  ;  make  a 
9  in  B  at  right  angles  with  the  rake  of  the  pediment,  and  a  9  in  C 
and  A  both  perpendicular.  Take  the  projection  8  9  in  A,  and  set  it 
from  9  to  8  on  both  B  and  C  ;  draw  «  8  in  A  B  and  C  ;  divide 
the  given  moulding  A  into  eight  parts,  and  draw  lines  through  each 
of  these  parts  parallel  to  the  rake  of  the  pediment;  then  take  the 
distance  1  1  from  the  given  moulding.  A,  and  prick  it  down  from  I 
to  1  on  the  line  a  8  in  both  B  and  C,  and  take  the  distance  2  2,  3  3, 
5  5,  6  6,  and  7  7,  and  set  them  down  on  the  line  o  8  in  B  and  C,  as 
before  directed  ;  then,  through  the  parts  so  set  off,  trace  the  curve, 
which  will  be  the  outline  of  the  raking  and  the  return  moulding. 

At  fig.  3  is  shown  a  design  for  a  triglyph,  including  the  fillet  and 
drops  below  it,  drawn,  on  a  large  scale  ;  the  sides  of  a    drop  would 


IONIC  ORDER.  29 

meet  in  a  point  if  produced  to  e.  Fig.  4  is  a  section  which  is  taken 
from  ctof.  On  fig.  3,  and  on  fig.  2  at  A  B,  is  shown  a  section  of 
the  triglyph  and  its  capital,  also  the  under  side  of  the  ovolo  and  its 
fillet,  showing  the  method  of  capping  the  triglyph,  and  disposing  the 
fillet  over  the  metopes.  And  on  fig.  4  is  shown  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  lower  end  of  the  drops  ;  the  dotted  line  shows  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  top  end  where  they  join  the  fillet  above  it.  The  differ- 
ent members  are  figured  in  minutes  on  the  plate. 


BASE    MOULDINGS 


PLATE  VIII. 

A  REPRESENTS  the  soffit  of  the  Doric  cornice  to   example  No.  3. 
B  is  a  design  for  a  Doric  base  by  St.  Le  Clerc. 
C  is  a  design  for  an  Ionic  base  by  Vignola ;  and 
D  is  a  design  of  the   Corinthian  base,  taken  from   the   portico  of 
the  Rotunda  at  Rome. 


GRECIAN    IONIC    ORDER. 


PLATE  IX. 

In  Ionia,  the  temple  of  Apollo  Panionius  was  built  after  the  Doric 
manner  ;    but  that  refined  people,  not  satisfied  with  the   simplicity 
8 


30  IONIC    ORDER. 

of  this  order,  invented  another  of  a  more  delicate  character,  and 
named  it  after  their  own  country,  the  Ionic,  They  made  the  height 
of  the  column  greater  in  proportion  to  its  diameter  than  in  the  Dor- 
ic ;  the  capital  was  totally  different  in  principle,  the  entablature  was 
changed  in  its  members  and  proportions,  and  a  base  was  added  to  the 
bottom  of  the  column.  Vitruvius  says  that,  as  the  Doric  was  strong 
and  masculine,  the  lonians  modelled  their  order  with  female  delicacy, 
and  that  the  volutes  were  taken  from  the  curls  of  hair  on  each  side 
of  the  face. 

In  the  architrave  and  frieze,  all  appearances  of  triglyphs  and  gut- 
t£e  are  omitted ;  and  in  the  cornice,  instead  of  the  bold  mutules  of 
the  Doric,  the  ends  of  smaller  pieces  of  wood,  to  which  the  covering 
tiles  were  fixed,  are  represented  by  what  are  termed  dentils  or  teeth. 
This  order  differed  from  the  Doric,  by  having  a  base  at  the  lower  ex- 
tremity of  the  shaft  ;  the  propriety  of  this  might  have  arisen  from  the 
diameter  of  the  shaft  being  much  less  than  that  of  the  Doric,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  height  of  the  order,  or  the  weight  it  had  to  sustain. 

The  volute  is  the  great  distinguishing  feature  of  this  order.  In  the 
Athenian  Ionics,  and  in  the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias  at  Priene, 
the  lower  edffc  of  the  channel  which  runs  between  them  is  formed 
into  a  curve,  bending  downwards  in  the  middle,  and  revolving  about 
the  spirals  on  either  side.  In  the  temple  of  Erectheus  and  Minerva 
Polias  at  Athens,  each  volute  has  two  channels,  formed  by  two  dis- 
tinct spiral  borders  ;  the  borders  forming  the  exterior  volute,  and  the 
under  side  of  the  lower  channel,  have  between  them  a  deep  recess 
or  spiral  groove,  which  diminishes  gradually  in  breadth,  till  it  loses 
itself  in  the  centre  of  the  eye.  In  the  temple  of  Bacchus  at  Teos, 
the  great  theatre  of  Laodicea,  and  in  all  the  Roman  Ionics,  the  chan- 
nel whereby  the  two  volutes  are  connected  has  no  border  on  the  lower 


IONIC   ORDER.  31 

edge,  but  terminates  with  a  horizontal  hne,  falhng  in  a  tangent  to  the 
commencement  of  the  second  revohition  of  each  volute. 

The  capitals  of  both  Greek  and  Roman  Ionics  have  the  echinus, 
astragal,  and  fillet ;  the  echinus  is  always  cut  into  eggs,  surrounded 
with  borders  of  angular  sections,  with  tongues  between  them  ;  the 
astragal  consists  of  a  row  of  beads,  having  two  small  ones  inserted 
between  two  large  ones.  In  all  the  Roman  buildings,  except  the 
Coliseum,  these  mouldings  are  cut  in  the  same  manner.  The  height 
of  the  Ionic  column  was  originally  eight  diameters  ;  the  moderns  have 
increased  it  to  nine.  The  shaft  is  generally  cut  into  twenty-four 
flutes,  with  as  many  fillets. 

The  section  of  the  flutes  of  the  columns,  in  the  temple  on  the  II- 
lyssus  at  Athens,  is  elliptical ;  the  flutes  descend  and  follow  the  curve 
jf  the  scape  of  the  column  in  the  following  specimens,  viz. :  the  tem- 
ple of  Minerva  Polias  and  of  Erectheus  at  Athens ;  the  temple  of 
Bacchus  at  Teos  ;   and  3Iinerva  Polias  at  Priene. 

The  base  of  the  Athenian  Ionics  consists  of  two  tori,  having  a  sco- 
tia  between  them,  separated  from  the  tori,  above  and  below,  by  two 
fillets ;  the  fillet  above  the  inferior  torus  projects,  in  general,  as  far 
as  the  extremity  of  the  superior  torus,  and  the  fillet  beneath  the  up- 
per torus  projects  beyond  both.  The  scotia  is  very  flat,  its  section 
forming  an  elliptic  curve,  which  joins  the  fillet  on  either  side.  The 
tori  and  scotia  are  nearly  of  equal  altitudes.  In  the  temple  on  the 
Illyssus,  there  is  a  bead  and  fillet  on  the  upper  torus,  joining  the  fillet 
to  the  scape  of  the  column  ;  the  upper  torus  of  the  base  is  fluted ; 
but  the  lower  part,  which  joins  the  upper  surface  of  the  fillet  above 
the  scotia,  is  left  entire. 

On  account  of  the  frieze  beinff  wanting  in  most  of  the  Asiatic 
remains,  although  the  architrave  and  cornice  have  been   accuratelv 


32  IONIC    ORDER. 

measured,  the  height  of  the  entablature  cannot  be  ascertained.  The 
only  instance  in  which  a  frieze  has  been  discovered  is  in  the  theatre 
of  Laodicea ;  and  there  it  is  rather  less  than  one  fifth  of  the  entabla- 
ture. The  height  of  the  entablature  may,  in  general,  be  two  diame- 
ters ;    and  it  may  be  increased  in  works  of  magnificence. 

In  the  temple  of  Erectheus  and  Minerva  Polias  at  Athens,  the 
architrave  has  three  fasciae  and  a  cymatium.  In  the  temple  of  Bac- 
chus at  Teos,  and  Minerva  Polias  at  Priene,  the  architraves  are 
also  divided  into  three  fasciee  below  the  cymatium.  Their  proportions 
are  very  different  from  those  at  Athens,  though  also  elegant  in  char- 
acter and  efiect. 

In  all  the  Asiatic  Ionics,  the  crowning  mouldings  of  the  cornices 
are  cimarecta,  less  in  projection  than  in  height.  The  dentil  bands 
are  never  omitted.  The  cymatium  of  the  denticulated  band  is  recess- 
ed upwards,  being  almost  entirely  wrought  out  of  the  soffit  of  the  co- 
rona, which  nearly  conceals  its  height. 

When  Ionic  columns  stand  in' the  flanks  as  well  as  in  the  fronts  of 
buildings,  two  volutes  at  the  corner  of  each  angular  column  are  con- 
trived so  as  to  present  the  same  form  in  the  flank  as  in  the  front,  as 
in  the  temple  of  Bacchus  at  Teos  ;  of  Minerva  at  Priene ;  Erecthe- 
us, and  that  of  the  muses  at  Athens  ;  and  likewise  of  Fortuna  Virilis 
at  Rome  :  the  angular  capitals  have,  in  all  these  instances,  one  volute 
on  each  side,  projected  in  a  curve  towards  the  angle.  Amongst  the 
ancient  Romans,  as  at  the  temple  of  Concord  at  Rome,  the  capitals 
of  all  the  columns  are  made  to  face  the  four  sides  of  the  abacus  ;  and 
it  was  from  this  specimen  that  Scammozzi,  encouraged  by  the  exam- 
ple of  Michael  Angelo,  composed  the  capital  upon  this  principle^ 
which  bears  his  name. 


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TONIC   ORDER.  33 

Elevation  of  the  Ionic  Order  on  the  Temple  of  Minerva  Polias  at 

Priene. 

The  great  height  of  the  cimarecta  and  its  small  projection  is  of  it- 
self beautiful,  and  well  calculated  for  ornament. 

The  dentils  show  to  great  advantage,  their  bold  projections  making 
them  a  striking  feature  in  this  order. 

The  architrave  and  capital  are  well  proportioned  and  elegant ;  and 
the  surprising  delicacy  of  the  ornaments,  their  bold  relief,  and  the 
grand  ratio  of  the  parts  to  each  other,  render  this  example  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  Ionic  order. 


GRECIAN    lOMO    CAPITAL, 


PLATE  X. 


Fig,  1  represents  one  half  the  plan  of  an  Ionic  capital ;  fig.  2,  a 
side ;  and  fig.  3,  a  front  elevation  of  the  same  capital  on  a  large 
scale. 


ROMAN    IONIC    ORDER, 


PLATE    XI. 

Ionic  Order,  as  approved  by  Sir  William  Chambers. 

"Amongst  the  ancients,  the  form  of  the   Ionic  profile   appears  to 
have  been  more   positively  determined  than  that   of  any  other   order ; 
9 


34  IONIC   ORDER 

for  in  all  the  antiques  at  Rome,  the  temple  of  Concord  excepted,  it 
is  exactly  the  same,  and  conformable  to  the  description  Vitruvius  has 
given  thereof. 

"The  modern  artists  have  likewise  been  more  unanimous  in  their 
opinions  upon  the  subject ;  all  of  them,  excepting  Palladio  and  his 
imitators,  having  employed  the  dentil  cornice,  and  the  other  parts  of 
the  profile,  nearly  as  they  are  found  in  the  Coliseum,  the  temple  of 
Fortune,  and  the  theatre  of  Marcellus. 

"In  this  plate  of  the  Ionic  order,  there  is  a  design  of  the  antique 
profile,  collected  by  me  from  different  antiquities  of  Rome.  The 
height  of  the  column  is  eighteen  modules,  and  that  of  the  entablature 
four  modules  and  a  half,  or  quarter  of  the  height  of  the  column,  as 
in  the  other  orders  ;  which  is  a  trifle  less  than  in  any  of  the  regular 
antique  Ionics.  The  base  is  Attic,  as  in  all  the  antiques,  and  the 
shaft  of  the  column  may  either  be  plain  or  fluted,  with  twenty-four  or 
with  twenty  flutings  only,  as  at  the  temple  of  Fortune  ;  of  which  the 
plan  should  be  a  little  more  than  semicircular,  as  it  is  at  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  Tonans,  and  at  the  forum  of  Nerva  ;  because  then  they 
are  more  distinctly  marked.  The  fillet,  or  interval  between  the  flutes, 
should  not  be  broader  than  one  third  of  their  width,  nor  narrower  than 
one  quarter  thereof.  The  ornaments  of  the  capital  are  to  correspond 
with  the  flutes  of  the  shaft ;  and  there  must  be  an  ove  or  a  dart  above 
the  middle  of  each  flute. 

"  Vignola  and  Scammozzi,  Serlio,  Alberti,  and  others,  have,  in  their 
architraves,  imitated  those  of  the  theatre  of  Marcellus,  and  of  the 
Coliseum,  having  composed  them  of  three  fasciae,  distinguished  from 
each  other  only  by  small  projections.  This  has  but  an  indifferent 
effect ;  the  separations  so  faintly  marked  are  not  sufliciently  striking, 
and  the  architrave  is  left  too  destitute  of  ornaments   for  the  rest  of 


IONIC   ORDER.  35 

the  profile — a  defect  most  striking  whenever  the  mouldings  of  the  pro- 
file are  enriched. 

"On  the  other  hand,  Palladio's  and  De  L'Ormes  architraves  ap- 
pear too  rich,  being  likewise  composed  of  three  fasciae,  separated  by 
mouldings  ;  I  have  therefore,  in  this  particular,  chosen  to  imitate  the 
profile  of  the  temple  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  where  there  are 
only  two  fasciae,  separated  from  each  other  by  a  moulding. 

"The  three  parts  of  the  entablature  bear  the  same  proportion  to 
each  other  in  this  as  in  the  Tuscan  order  ;  the  frieze  is  plain,  as 
being  most  suitable  to  the  simplicity  of  the  rest  of  the  composition, 
and  the  cornice  is  almost  an  exact  copy  from  Vignola's  desicrn,  in 
which  there  is  a  purity  of  form,  a  grandeur  of  style,  and  a  close 
conformity  to  the  most  approved  antiques,  not  to  be  found  in  the 
profiles  of  his  competitors. 

"  If  it  be  required  to  reduce  this  entablature  to  two  ninths  of  the 
height  of  the  column,  which,  on  most  occasions,  is  a  proportion  pref- 
erable to  that  of  one  quarter,  particularly  where  the  eye  has  been 
habituated  to  contemplate  diminutive  objects,  it  may  easily  be  done 
by  making  the  module  for  the  entablature  less  by  one  ninth  than  the 
semi-diameter  of  the  column  ;  afterwards  dividing  it  as  usual,  and 
observing  the  same  dimensions  as  are  figured  in  the  design.  The 
distribution  of  the  dentil  band  will,  in  such  case,  answer  pretty  nearly 
in  all  the  regular  intercolumniations  ;  and  in  the  outer  ano-le  there 
will  be  a  dentil,  as  in  the  temple  of  Fortune  at  Rome. 

"In  interior  decorations,  where  much  delicacy  is  required,  the 
height  of  the  entablature  may  be  reduced  even  to  one  fifth  of  the  col- 
umn, by  observing  the  same  method,  and  making  the  module  only 
four  fifths  of  the  semi-diameter. 

"  The  antique  Ionic  capital  differs  from  any  of  the  others  :  its  front 


36  .        IONIC  ORDER. 

and  side  faces  are  not  alike.  This  particularity  occasions  great  diffi- 
culty, wherever  there  are  breaks  in  the  entablature,  or  where  the 
decoration  is  continued  in  flank,  as  well  as  in  front ;  for  either  all  the 
capitals  in  front  must  have  the  baluster  side  outward,  or  the  angular 
capitals  will  have  a  different  appearance  from  the  rest ;  neither  of 
which  is  admissible.  The  architect  of  the  temple  of  Fortune  at 
Rome  has  fallen  upon  an  expedient,  which,  in  some  degree,  remedies 
the  defect.  In  that  building,  the  corner  capitals  have  their  angular 
volutes  in  an  oblique  position,  inclining  equally  to  the  front  and  side, 
and  offering  volute  faces  both  ways. 

"In  this  order,  I  have  employed  the  Attic  base.  Of  the  antique 
base,  described  by  Vitruvius,  and  used  by  Vignola  and  Philibert  De 
L'Orme  in  their  Ionic  orders,  and  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  in  some 
parts  of  St.  Paul's,  I  think  there  is  no  example  among  the  antiques ; 
and,  being  universally  esteemed  a  very  imperfect  production,  I  have 
not  even  given  a  design  of  it. 

"As  the  Doric  order  is  particularly  affected  in  churches  or  temples 
dedicated  to  male  saints,  so  the  Ionic  is  principally  used  in  such  as 
are  consecrated  to  females  of  the  matronal  state.  It  is  likewise  em- 
ployed in  courts  of  justice,  in  libraries,  colleges,  seminaries,  and  other 
structures  having  relation  to  arts  or  letters  ;  in  private  houses  and 
palaces,  to  adorn  the  women's  apartments  ;  and,  says  Le  Clerc,  in 
all  places  dedicated  to  peace  and  tranquillity.  The  ancients  employ- 
ed it  in  temples  sacred  to  Juno,  to  Bacchus,  to  Diana,  and  other  de- 
ities whose  dispositions  held  a  medium  between  the  severe  and  the  ef- 
fpminate." — Chambers  on  Civil  Architecture. 


lOMC   ORDER.  37 


IONIC    ORDER,    EXAMPLE    No.    3. 


PLATE   XII. 

I>"  selecting  the  following  example,  regard  has  been  had  for  the  ma- 
terials of  which  it  is  usually  wrought,  for  economy,  and  for  its  adap- 
tation to  present  practice.  In  imitation  of  Palladio  and  other  modern 
architects,  the  column  is  nine  diameters  in  height ;  the  shaft  is  deco- 
rated with  twenty-four  flutes,  and  as  many  fillets  ;  the  base  is  Attic,  as 
with  the  Romans  in  their  best  examples,  and  is  decidedly  preferable  to 
those  employed  by  the  Greeks  in  their  early  practice  of  this  order. 
The  capital  is  taken  from  a  beautiful  capital  found  at  the  little  Ionic 
temple  near  the  river  Illyssus  at  Athens,  which  is  a  fine  example  for 
our  imitation.  To  the  height  of  the  entablature  two  diameters  of 
the  column  have  been  given.  The  architrave  is  thirty-seven  and  a 
half  minutes  in  height,  and  is  divided  into  two  fascies,  separated  by  a 
rectangular  projection,  and  capped  by  the  echinus,  which  is  finished 
by  a  fillet  above  and  below  it.  The  frieze  is  plain,  and  thirty-six  min- 
utes in  height.  Tiie  cornice  is  forty-six  and  a  half  minutes  in  height, 
the  bed-mould  of  which  is  enriched  with  the  dentil,  its  legitimate  orna- 
ment, finished  with  the  echinus  and  bead  below,  and  above  with  the 
echinus  and  fillet,  both  of  which  are  recessed  up  into  the  soffit  of  the 
corona,  so  as  to  be  concealed  from  a  direct  front  view.  The  corona 
is  eleven  minutes  in  height,  and  is  capped  by  a  compound  moulding, 
which  pretty  nearly  imitates  the  Grecian  specimens. 

Fig.  1  is  a  section  of  the  cymatium,  shoAving  the  fascia  and  cima- 
recta  on  a  large  scale. 
10 


38  ENTABLATURES. 

Fig.  2  is  a  design  of  the  ovolo  and  fillet  above  the  dentil,  complete- 
ly recessed  up  into  the  soffit  of  the  corona. 

Fig.  3  shows  a  profile  of  the  mouldings  of  the  capital  on  a  large 
scale. 


GRECIAN    ENTABLATURES 


PLATE  XIII. 

On  this  plate  are  exhibited  two  ancient  examples  of  entablatures. 
That  of  fig.  1  is  imitated  from  the  little  Ionic  temple  near  the  river 
Illyssus  at  Athens.  It  is  two  diameters  and  seventeen  minutes  in 
height,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  simple  plainness.  Its  details,  beau- 
tiful in  themselves,  are  judiciously  arranged,  and  appear  dignified  ajid 
chaste.  The  dentil,  however,  which,  it  must  be  allowed,  is  the  legiti- 
mate and  characteristic  ornament  of  the  Ionic  order,  is  here  omitted. 
It  will  be  wise,  nevertheless,  to  imitate  this  example  when  simple  dig- 
nity only  is  required,  because  a  very  considerable  portion  of  labour 
in  its  execution  will  thereby  be  saved,  which  would  be  required  to  ex- 
ecute an  entablature  more  abundant  in  mouldings,  and  in  which  the 
dentil  should  form  a  part  of  the  bed-mould,  especially  if  the  material 
be  stone. 

Fig.  2  exhibits  a  capital  and  entablature  imitated  from  the  Chora- 
gic  monuments  of  Thrasyllus  at  Athens.  Although  this  example  is 
neither  Doric,  Ionic,  nor  Corinthian,  it  is  beautiful  in  both  character 
and  effect.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  a  deviation  from  the  original 
in  some  of  its  details  will  render  it  more  conformable  to  modern  prac- 


ENTABLATURES.  39 

tice  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  It  is  with  great  deference  to  its  an- 
cient author,  that  the  following  deviations  are  proposed; — first,  to  leave 
off  the  cimatium,  which  crowns  the  capital,  because  the  capital  is  too 
abundant  in  mouldings ;  second,  to  leave  off  the  drops  or  guttae, 
which  are  suspended  from  the  fillet  of  the  regula,  because  they  are 
so  small,  and,  when  placed  in  a  row,  produce  the  idea  of  finery  rather 
than  of  dignity  to  the  composition  ;  and,  lastly,  to  give  a  greater  pro- 
jection to  the  bed-mould,  and  a  less  height  to  the  fillet  by  which  it 
is  crowned. 

PLATE    XIV. 

'  On  Plate  XIV.  are  two  designs  for  entablatures.  Fig.  2  has  the 
Doric  proportions,  and  is  intended  to  be  used  with  plain  columns  or  pi- 
lasters of  that  order,  without  a  base,  and  where  plainness  only  is 
desired,  or  expense  is  to  be  avoided.  The  capital  accompanying  this 
entablature  is  intended  to  be  used  with  pilasters  only,  and  was  design- 
ed as  a  substitute  for  that  beautiful  but  complicated  one  belonging  to 
the  Choragic  monument  of  Thrasyllus,  at  Athens.  The  great  num- 
ber and  delicacy  of  the  parts  of  this  capital  render  it  expensive,  and 
very  difficult  to  be  worked,  even  in  wood  ;  and  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  work  it  in  granite. 

The  one  on  this  plate,  intended  for  a  substitute,  is  composed  of  few 
and  large  parts,  and  is  of  such  a  construction  as  to  be  easily  worked 
on  either  wood  or  granite. 

Fig.  1  is  intended  to  be  used  with  Ionic  columns,  or  pilasters, 
where  simplicity  of  character  is  desired.  Fig.  3  shows  the  band  of 
the  architrave  on  a  large  scale  ;  and  fig.  4  shows  the  crown  moulding, 
also  on  a  large  scale. 


40  IONIC  VOLUTE. 

PLATE  XV. 

On  Plate  XV.  is  a  desion   for  an  Ionic  entablature  with  modillions. 

The  modillion  does  not  properly  belong  to  the  Ionic  cornice,  but, 
as  it  has  been  so  frequently  used  by  Palladio  and  other  modern  arch- 
itects, I  thought  it  best  to  give  a  design  of  one  here,  for  fear  that, 
otherwise,  I  might  disappoint  some,  who  rigidly  adhere  to  the  Roman 
school  of  architecture.  It  will  be  seen  by  the  plate,  that  the  capping 
of  the  modillion  is  a  square  instead  of  an  ogee,  and  that  it  is  recessed 
up  into  the  soffit  of  the  corona,  and  by  that  means  forms  a  pannel 
between  the  modillions. 

Fig.  1.  To  draw  the  soffit  of  the  modillion,  divide  the  line  a  h  into 
six  equal  parts ;  on  2,  with  the  distance  I  2,  draw  g  h;  on  e,  with  the 
distance  two  and  one  half  parts,  draw  h  i  :  and  with  the  same  dis- 
tance, and  on  d,  draw  i  b. 

Fig.  2  is  a  design  for  a  cornice.  See  explanation  of  Plates  XXXIV. 
and  XXXV. 


VOLUTES 


PLATE  XVI. 

To  draw  the  Ionic  Volute. 
FIG.  1. 
The  centre  of  the  eye  N  and  the  distance  A  being  given,  on  the 
centre  N,  and  with  a  radius  equal  to  one  half  the  diameter  of  the 
eye,  describe  a  circle,  cutting  N  A  at  O  ;  divide  O  A  into  two  equal 
parts  at  E,  and  divide  O  E  into  one  part  more  than  you  intend  to 
have  revolutions  in  the  volute  ;  then  take  one   of  those  divisions   for 


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IONIC   VOLUTE.  41 

the  side  of  the  square  9,  10,  11  and  12,  and  divide  it  as  is  shown  on 
a  larger  scale  at  fig.  3 ;  then,  with  the  distance  12  A  in  your  com- 
passes, and  on  12,  draw  the  quarter  of  a  circle  A  B.  Then  on  11, 
and  with  the  distance  11  B,  draw  the  quarter  circle  B  C  ;  on  10,  and 
with  the  distance  10  C,  draw  CD;  on  9,  with  the  distance  9  D,  draw 
D  E.  This  completes  one  revolution.  On  8  draw  E  F  ;  on  7  draw  F 
G ;  on  6  draw  G  H ;  on  5  draw  HI;  on  4  draw  IK;  on  3  draw  K 
L  ;  on  2  draw  L  M ;  and  on  1  draw  M  O ;  which  completes  the  out- 
side circle.  Draw  the  inside  circle,  from  centres  one  fifth  part  of  one 
of  the  divisions  of  the  square  nearer  the  centre  of  the  eye  of  the 
volute. 

FIG.  2. 

The  height  of  the  volute  D  E  being  given,  divide  it  into  eight  equal 
parts  ;  take  one  of  those  parts  for  the  diameter  of  the  eye,  leaving 
four  parts  above  and  three  below  the  eye  ;  then  draw  the  diagonal 
line  A  B,  cutting  the  centre  of  the  eye  at  C,  and  divide  1  2  into  six 
equal  parts,  as  is  more  clearly  seen  on  the  eye  at  large,  fig.  4.  With 
the  radius  1  F,  and  on  1,  draw  the  arc  FA;  on  2,  and  with  the  dis- 
tance 2  A,  draw  A  B  ;  on  3,  with  the  distance  3  B,  draw  B  G ;  and  so 
on,  until  you  have  completed  the  outside  of  the  fillet;  draw  the  in- 
side of  the  fillet  from  centres  one  fifth  part  of  one  division  nearer  the 
centre,  as  before  directed. 

PLATE    XVII. 

To  draw  a  Spiral  Line  to  touch  a  given  Circle,  whose  Centre  is  the 
Centre  of  the  Spiral,  to  any  Number  of  Revolutions ;  the  ichole 
Height  being  given. 

From  the  height  of  the  spiral  F  E,  set  off  the  diameter  of  the  eye 
E  G.     If  three  revolutions  are  intended,  divide  G  F  into  twelve  equal 
11 


42  CORINTHIAN   ORDER.  - 

parts  :  if  four  revolutions,  divide  G  F  into  sixteen  equal  parts.  Take 
seven  of  the  twelve  parts,  together  with  one  half  of  the  eye  or  one 
half  of  E  G,  and  set  it  from  F  downwards,  and  it  will  extend  to  the 
centre  of  the  eye,  A.  In  fig.  2  the  centres  are  drawn  on  a  large  scale, 
from  which  I  shall  make  the  description ;  which  will  also  make  plain 
fig.  3,  which  is  calculated  for  two,  fig.  4,  which  is  calculated  for  four, 
and  fig.  5,  which  is  calculated  for  five  revolutions. 

A  is  the  centre  of  the  eye  just  found  ;  make  A  B  perpendicular  to  A 
C,  and  each  equal  to  one  half  of  one  of  the  twelve  parts  of  G  F.  Fig. 
1.  Make  B  1,  B  2  and  C  2  each  equal  to  A  B  or  A  C  ;  draw  A  1  and 
A  2 ;  divide  A  C  into  3  equal  parts,  or  into  as  many  parts  as  it  is  in- 
tended to  make  revolutions  in  the  volute  :  divide  A  1  on  A  C  into  two 
parts  at  D  ;  draw  D  4  parallel  to  A  2,  D  3  parallel  to  A  1  :  then  draw 
lines  cutting  the  diagonals  at  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11  and  12,  which 
will  be  the  twelve  centres,  from  which  the  volute  is  to  be  drawn.  In 
fig.  1,  and  on  1  as  a  centre,  with  the  distance  1  a,  draw  the  quad- 
rant of  a  circle  a  h  ;  on  2,  with  the  distance  2  b,  draw  he;  on  3 
draw  c  d  ;  on  4  draw  d  e  ;  on  5  draw  ef;  on  6  draw/^  ;  on  7  draw 
g  h  ;  on  8  draw  h  i  ;  on  9  draw  ij;  on  10  draw  j  k  ;  on  11  draw  A- 
I ;  and  on  12  draw  I  m ;  and  the  outside  of  the  fillet  is  completed. 
Draw  the  inside  line,  as  before  directed. 


CORINTHIAN    ORDER. 


PLATE   XVIII. 


The  artists  of  Grsecia  proper,  perceiving  that,  in  the  Ionic  order, 
the  severity  of  the  Doric  had  been  departed  from,  by  one  happy  effort. 


CORINTHIAN    ORDER.  43 

invented  a  third,  which  still  much  surpassed  the  Ionic  in  delicacy  of 
proportion  and  richness  of  decorations  :  this  was  named  the  Corinthi- 
an order.  The  merit  of  this  invention  is  ascribed  to  Callimachus,  an 
Athenian  sculptor,  who  is  said  to  have  had  the  idea  suggested  to  him, 
by  observing  acanthus  leaves  growing  around  a  basket  which  had 
been  placed,  with  some  favorite  trinkets,  upon  the  grave  of  a  young 
lady  of  Corinth  ;  the  stalks  which  arose  among  the  leaves  having 
been  formed  into  slender  volutes  by  a  square  tile,  which  covered  the 
basket.  The  whole  fabric  of  the  Corinthian  order  is  composed  with 
great  delicacy  of  taste.  It  is  admirably  fitted  for  the  most  highly  or- 
namented states  of  architecture,  and  is  strongly  expressive  of  the 
refinement  and  excellence  to  which  the  Greeks  had  carried  their  taste 
and  skill  in  architecture  and  sculpture. 

The  Greeks,  having  invented  and  established  three  orders,  with 
each  a  separate  character,  calculated  for  edifices,  gradually  ascend- 
ing from  the  most  simple  to  those  which  were  highly  ornamented, 
completed  a  distinct  and  perfect  school  of  architecture,  to  which  there 
remained  nothing  to  be  added. 

In  all  the  examples  in  Stuart's  Athens,  this  order  has  an  Attic  base  ; 
the  upper  fillet  of  the  scotia  projects  as  far  as  the  upper  torus.  In 
the  monument  of  Lysicrates,  the  upper  fillet  of  the  base  projects  far- 
ther than  the  upper  torus,  which  is  an  inverted  ovolo. 

Vitruvius  observes,  that  the  shaft  of  the  column  has  the  same  pro- 
portions as  the  Ionic,  except  the  difference  which  arose  from  the 
greater  height  of  the  capital,  it  being  a  whole  diameter  ;  whereas 
the  Ionic  is  only  two  thirds  of  it.  But  this  column,  including  the 
base  and  capital,  has  by  the  moderns  been  increased  to  ten  diameters 
in  height.  If  the  entablature  is  enriched,  the  shaft  should  be  fluted  : 
the  number  of  flutes    and  fillets  are  generally  twentv-four;  and  fre- 


44  CORINTHIAN   ORDER. 

quently  the  lower  third  of  the  height  has  cables,  or  reeds,  husks,  spi- 
rally twisted  ribands,  or  some  sort  of  flowers  inserted  on  them.  The 
great  distinguishing  feature  of  this  order  is  its  capital,  which  has  for 
two  thousand  years  been  acknowledged  the  greatest  ornament  of  this 
school  of  architecture.  The  height  is  one  diameter  of  the  column  ; 
to  which  the  moderns  have  added  one  sixth  more. 

The  best  specimens  are,  the  monument  of  Lysicrates,  the  Stoa, 
and  arch  of  Adrian,  at  Athens ;  and  the  Pantheon  of  Agrippa,  and 
the  three  columns  of  the  Campo  Vaccino,  at  Rome. 

This  order  seems  never  to  have  been  much  employed  in  Greece 
before  the  time  of  the  Roman  conquest ;  but  this  powerful  people 
employed  it  almost  exclusively  in  every  part  of  their  extensive  empire  ; 
and  it  is  accordingly  in  edifices  constructed  under  their  influence  that 
the  most  perfect  specimens  are  to  be  found.  Vitruvius  says,  that  Co- 
rinthian columns  were  sometimes  surmounted  by  a  Doric  entablature  ; 
which  is  not  supported  by  any  antique  example  now  to  be  found.  His 
observation  respecting  the  Ionic  entablature  over  the  same  kind  of 
columns  is  verified  in  a  number  of  instances. 

The  arch  of  Adrian,  at  Athens,  has  a  cornice  with  dentils,  a  plain 
frieze,  an  architrave  with  two  plain  fasciae,  and  an  Attic  base. 

A  temple  at  Jackly,  near  Mylassa,  has  a  cornice  with  dentils,  a 
swelled  frieze,  an  architrave  with  three  plain  fasciae,  and  an  Attic 
base. 

At  Salonica  (the  ancient  Thessalonica)  a  building  called  the  In- 
cantada  has  a  cornice  with  dentils,  a  swelled  frieze  ornamented  with 
flutings,  an  architrave  with  three  plain  fasciae,  and  an  Attic  base. 

The  temple  of  Vesta,  or  Tivoli,  has  a  plain  cornice,  with  the  den- 
til band  uncut,  an  ornamented  frieze,  an  architrave  with  two  fasciae, 
divided  by  an  astragal,  and  an  Attic  base. 


CORINTHIAN   ORDER.  45 

The  portico  of  Septimius  Severus,  in  the  same  city,  has  a  plain 
cornice,  with  a  small  uncut  dentil  band,  a  plain  frieze,  and  an  archi- 
trave with  three  fascia?,  divided  by  mouldings. 

In  all  these  instances,  the  entablature  and  base  are  similar  to  those 
generally  observed  in  the  Ionic  order,  from  which  these  Corinthi- 
an examples  differ  only  in  the  form  of  their  capitals.  But  it  will  ap- 
pear that  the  Romans  attempted  to  give  the  Corinthian  order  a  more 
distinct  character,  by  appropriating  to  it  a  peculiar  entablature  and 
base,  and  thus  making  a  complete  order  of  what  might  be  previous- 
ly regarded  as  a  composition  ;  in  which  light  Vitruvius  seems  to  have 
considered  it. 

The  portico  of  the  Pantheon  has  a  cornice  with  modillions,  and  an 
uncut  dentil  band,  a  plain  frieze,  an  architrave  with  two  fasciae,  divided 
by  mouldings,  and  a  Corinthian  base. 

The  temple  of  Peace,  at  Rome,  has  a  cornice  with  modillions  and 
dentils,  a  plain  frieze,  and  an  architrave  with  three  fasciae,  divided  by 
mouldings. 

In  the  Campo  Vaccino,  the  three  columns,  supposed  by  some  to 
have  belonged  to  a  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator,  and  by  others,  to  a  tem- 
ple dedicated  to  Julius  Csesar,  have  a  cornice  with  modillions  and 
dentils,  a  flat  frieze,  an  architrave  with  three  fasciae,  divided  by  mould- 
ings, and  a  Corinthian  base. 

The  temple  of  Jupiter  Tonans,  at  Rome,  has  a  cornice  with  mo- 
dillions and  dentils,  a  flat  frieze,  and  an  architrave  with  three  fasciae, 
divided  by  mouldings.  The  arch  of  Constantine  has  a  cornice  with 
modillions  and  dentils,  a  plain  frieze,  an  architrave  with  three  plain 
fasciae,  and  an  Attic  base. 

At  Ephesus,  the  temple  supposed  by  Chandler  to  have  been  erect- 
ed  by  permission  of  Augustus,  in  honor  of  his   uncle   Julius,  has  a 
12 


46  CORINTHIAN    ORDER. 

cornice  with  modillions  and  dentils,  a  swelled  and  ornamented  frieze, 
an  architrave  with  three  fasciae,  divided  by  mouldings,  and  an  Attic 
base. 

The  Maison  Quarre,  at  Nismes,  has  a  cornice  with  modillions 
and  dentils,  a  flat  frieze,  an  architrave  with  three  fascia3,  divided  by 
mouldings,  and  an  Attic  base. 

Of  the  modern  architects  who  treated  of  this  order,  Palladio- 
makes  the  column  nine  and  a  half  diameters  high ;  one  fifth  of 
which  he  gives  to  the  entablature,  consisting  of  a  cornice  with  mo- 
dillions and  dentils,  a  flat  frieze,  and  an  architrave  with  three  fascioe, 
divided  by  astragals  :  the  base  is  Attic.  The  design  of  Scammozzi 
bears  a  general  resemblance  to  that  of  Palladio,  but  his  column  has 
ten  diameters  in  its  altitude  ;  his  entablature  is  one  fifth  of  this 
height ;  the  cornice  has  modillions,  the  architrave  consists  of  three 
fasciae,  divided  by  astragals,  and  the  base  is  Attic.  Serlio,  following 
Vitruvius,  has  given  this  order  an  Ionic  entablature,  with  dentils,  and 
the  same  proportion  of  the  capital  ;  his  column  is  nine  diameters  high, 
and  has  a  Corinthian  base.  Vignola's  Corinthian  is  a  grand  and 
beautiful  composition,  chiefly  imitative  of  the  three  columns.  He 
makes  the  column  ten  diameters  and  a  half  in  height ;  the  entablature 
is  a  fourth  of  that  altitude,  the  cornice  has  modillions  and  dentils,  the 
frieze  is  plain,  the  architrave  of  three  fasciae,  divided  by  mouldings, 
and  the  base  is  Attic. 

In  the  following  table  will  be  found  the  proportions  of  some  of 
the  principal  examples  of  the  Corinthian  order  ;  in  examining  which, 
it  is  to  be  recollected,  that  the  several  members  are  measured  by  the 
lower  diameter  of  the  shafts,  which  is  divided  into  sixty  parts,  which 
are  called  minutes. 


CORINTHIAN  CAPITAL. 


47 


Portico  of  the  Pantheon       .... 
Temple  of  Vesta,  at  Tivoli  .... 
Temple  of  Antonius  and  Faustina 
Three  Columns  in  the  Campo  Vaccino 
The  Basilica  of  Antonius,  at  Rome    . 
The  Arch  of  Constantine     .... 

Temple  at  Ephesus 

Temple  at  Jackly,  near  Mylassa     .     . 

Poeile,  at  Athens 

Arch  of  Adrian,  at  Athens  .... 
The  Incantada,  at  Salonica       .     .     . 

Palladio 

Scammozzi 

Serlio 

Vignola 


Height  of 
Column. 

Heiglit  of 
Capital. 

Arclii- 
trave. 

Frieze. 

Cornice. 

Diam.  Min. 

Mill. 

Min. 

Min. 

Min. 

9  34^ 

67f 

42f 

39^ 

54 

9  21f 

57 

30 

37^ 

32* 

9  36^ 

68f 

m 

m 

52* 

10    6f 

6% 

i^ 

m 

m^ 

10  Uf 

69^ 

iSi 

324 

Missmg. 

9  37 

65f 

45 

40 

58t^ 

10  15 

64 

48 

45* 

48 

9  31 

63 

43f 

40 

Missing. 

9  32 

64f 

39* 

34J 

38f 

9  52 

72 

41 

38f 

46 

9  31 

66| 

46 

41* 

42* 

9  30 

70 

38 

28* 

47* 

10 

70 

40 

32 

48 

9 

60 

30 

37 

39 

10 

70 

45 

45 

60 

This  example  of  the  Corinthian  order  is  taken  from  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Stator,  at  Rome,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
examples  of  the  order. 

A  is  a  design  of  the  base  on  a  large  scale. 


CORINTHIAN    CAPITAL. 


PLATE  XIX. 

Projection  of  the  Corinthian  Capital. 

Fig.  1  is  the  plan.  Make  the  length  of  the  diagonal  of  the  aba- 
cus two  diameters  ;  the  centre  of  each  side  is  determined  by  the 
vertex  of  an  equilateral  triangle  ;  the  semi-plan  is  divided  into  eig-ht 
equal  parts,  which  being  carried  up  perpendicularly  to  fig.  2,  the 
elevation  gives  the  centres  of  the  leaves  of  which  the  projections 
are  formed  by  those  unon  thf'  nlnn.  f»«  is  .sshown  bv  dotted  lines.     To 


48  COMPOSITE    ORDER.     PEDESTALS. 

draw  the  faces  of  the  abacus  :  With  the  distance  a  h  describe  the 
segments  of  a  circle  a  b,  b  c,  c  d  and  d  a.  Fig.  3  shows  the  form 
and  manner  of  raffling  the  leaves ;  fig.  3  being  the  front,  and  fig.  4 
the  side  view.  Fig.  5  is  a  design  for  a  leaf  differing  from  fig.  2,  and 
was  taken  from  the  three  columns  in  the  Campo  Vaccino.  Fig.  6  is 
a  design  for  the  soffit,  and  fig.  7  the  side  view  of  a  modillion. 


COMPOSITE    ORDER. 


PLATE  XX. 

The  example  here  given  is  taken  from  the  arch  of  Titus  at  Rome, 
erected  soon  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  for  the  purpose  of 
commemorating  that  event. 

This  order  was  first  used  by  the  Romans  in  their  triumphal  arches, 
to  show  their  dominion  over  the  nations  which  they  had  conquered, 
and  was  by  them  generally  covered  with  a  great  profusion  of  enrich- 
ments. Although  the  capital,  which  is  a  distinguished  feature  in  this 
order,  is  in  the  lower  part  Corinthian,  and  the  upper  part  Ionic,  it 
produced,  nevertheless,  a  rich  and  martial  effect,  well  adapted  to  the 
use  to  which  it  was  put  by  the  Romans  ;  an  effect  which  would  be 
sought  for  in  vain  from  the  delicate  Corinthian  capital. 


PEDESTALS. 


PLATE    XXL 

Pedestals   are,  I  believe,  a  Roman  invention  ;  they   are  useful  for 
supporting  a  colonnade   or  a   pilastrade,   and  sometimes   supply   the 


mSlC  TOiiTTI  . 


IS 


n 

--l'^\ 

r 

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Fit/.  I. 


t^ 


f'll/    .'t 

I! 


._^ 


f(5K;i.vT"iiiii:i\;N'  «i<!1)]EH  a< ii,.  r.n,,.i.  ..r  i,,,.,!.,  m.i...  :,i  i;..m. 


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^'iiiHwiiiil'; 


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17 

ft 

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f!'. 


n's  I  //% 


'C'.A'P^XiM,  ^^>'J  )  "IM  (ODJi.jL.  1  i)..s 


IM..  I!l 


fit/.  -.'. 


Fi,i./ 


fV//. .'/ 


/'//.  / 


/'f/. 


/'»/.  7 . 


V, 


'"':/.:  {// 


'"  •;  a:  f/  / 


■  >  v,:  ■'// 


PEDESTALS.  49 

office  of  a  basement  to  a  building.     They  consist  of  a  base,  die,  and 
cornice. 

In  the  original  examples  of  Grecian  architecture,  we  find  the  col- 
umns standing  on  the  uppermost  of  three  steps  ;  a  rule  to  which  we 
know  of  but  one  existing  exception,  to  be  seen  in  the  temple  of  The- 
seus, at  Athens,  which  has  but  two  steps.  The  Romans,  however, 
when  they  raised  the  floors  of  their  temples  and  other  edifices  high, 
were  under  the  necessity  of  discontinuing  the  front  stairs,  lest  they 
should  prove  inconvenient  by  occupying  too  much  ground  around  the 
building,  and  of  adopting  the  pedestal  raised  to  a  level  with  the  top 
of  the  stairs,  and  projecting  to  the  front  of  the  steps  which  profiled 
on  its  sides. 

Wherever  pedestals  are  introduced,  the  grandeur  of  the  order  is 
diminished,  as  all  the  parts  are  proportionably  reduced  ;  yet  they  are 
indispensable  in  some  situations. 

In  ancient  Roman  buildings,  the  proportions  of  pedestals  are  very 
variable  ;  but  some  modern  writers  have  endeavored  to  reduce  them 
to  a  resfular  standard.  Vicrnola  would  have  them  to  be  one  third  of 
tlie  altitude  of  the  column  ;  but  as  this  appeared  to  make  them  too 
high.  Sir  William  Chambers  reduced  it  to  three  tenths ;  but  both 
ratios  must  be  subject  to  variation,  according  to  circumstances.  Ped- 
estals still  lower  are  to  be  preferred. 

As  to  the  decorations  of  pedestals,  projecting  tablets   are  inadmis- 
sible.    It  is  sometimes  customary  to  adorn  the  dies  with  sunk  pannels, 
surrounded  with  mouldings  ;  and  the  pannels  themselves  are  occasion-"" 
ally  occupied  by  bass  reliefs  or  inscriptions. 

Pedestals  should  never  be  insulated,  though  the  columns  sustained 
by  them  be  so.     In  the  ancient  theatres  and  amphitheatres,  the  infe- 
rior orders  rested  upon  steps,  while  all  the  superior  orders  stood  upon 
13 


50  ARCADES 

pedestals,  which  formed  a  parapet  for  raising  the  base  of  the  order 
sufficiently  high  to  be  seen  on  a  near  approach  to  the  building,  and  for 
the  spectators  to  lean  over  ;  but  they  never  exceeded  the  height 
necessary  for  the  prevention  of  accident. 

On  Plate  XXI.  are  four  designs  for  pedestals,  which  may  be  used 
with  the  Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders,  their  details 
being  figured  on  the  plate. 


ARCADES 


PLATE   XXII. 

When  an  aperture  in  a  wall  is  too  wide  to  be  iintelled,  it  is  arched 
over,  and  receives  the  appellation  of  an  arcade,  which  term,  in  the 
plural  number,  indicates  a  continued  range  of  such  apertures.  They 
are  not  so  magnificent  as  colonnades,  but  are  stronger,  more  solid, 
and  less  expensive. 

In  the  construction  of  arcades,  the  piers  require  the  utmost  care 
to  have  them  of  sufficient  strength  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  arch- 
es, particularly  those  at  the  extremities.  In  large  arches,  the  key- 
stone should  never  be  omitted,  and  they  should  be  carried  to  the  soffit 
of  the  architrave,  where  they  would  be  useful  in  supporting  the  cen- 
tre of  the  entablature,  which  would  otherwise  have  too  great  a  bear- 
in  f.  The  altitude  of  arcades  should  never  be  much  more  nor  much 
less  than  double  their  breadth.  The  breadth  of  the  pier  should 
seldom  exceed  two  thirds,  nor  be  less  than  one  third  of  that  of  the 
arcade  ;  and  the  angular  one  should  have  the  addition  of  a  third,  or 
even  a  half  more  than  the  rest,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  design. 
The  impost  should  not  be  less  than  a  ninth,  nor  more  than  a  seventh 
of  the  breadth  of  the  arch  ;  and  the  archivolt  not  less  than  a   tenth. 


FLUTES   AND  FILLETS.  51 

nor  more  than  an  eighth,  of  the  same  breadth.  The  bottom  of  the 
keystone  should  be  equal  in  breadth  to  that  of  the  archivolt ;  and  its 
length  not  less  than  one  and  a  half,  nor  more  than  double  its  bottom 
breadth.  Make  the  height  of  the  impost  moulding  equal  to  the 
breadth  of  the  impost. 


FLUTES    AND    FILLETS 


PLATE   XXIII. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  manner  of  setting  out  the  flutes  on  the  column 
of  the  Doric  order.  A  represents  the  size  of  the  column  at  base,  and 
B  at  the  neck.  Divide  the  circumference  into  twenty  equal  parts, 
that  being  the  number  of  flutes  for  this  column,  and  give  one  part  to 
each  flute  ;  divide  one  part,  as  a  b,  into  four  parts  ;  with  three  of 
these  parts,  and  on  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  &c.,  describe  the  curves. 

Fig.  1  shows  the  elevation  of  a  part  of  the  column,  when  fluted. 

Fig.  5  shows  a  semi-plan,  and  fig.  4  an  elevation  of  the  Ionic  col- 
umn. Divide  its  circumference  into  twenty-four  equal  parts,  and  di- 
vide one  of  these  twenty-fourth  parts  into  four  parts  ;  with  one  and  a 
half  of  these  four  parts,  and  on  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  &c.,  describe  the 
flutes,  making  each  of  them  a  half  circle,  so  that  each  fillet  is  equal 
to  one  third  of  a  flute. 

Fig  3  shows  the  division  of  the  flutes  and  fillets  on  a  large   scale. 

Fig.  6  shows  how  to  diminish  a  column  after  the  Roman  taste. 
Divide  the  shaft  of  the  column  into  four  parts,  and  leave  the  lower 
fourth  undiminished  ;  divide  the  remaining  three  fourths  into  six  equal 
parts,  as  represented  on  the  central  line  of  the  column.  On  A  de- 
scribe the  circle  h  e,  d  c  ;  make  e  d  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  col- 


52  COLUMNS. 

limn  at  the  neck,  and  divide  the  circle  b  e  into  six  equal  parts  ;  draw 
lines  parallel  to  b  c  through  each  of  these  divisions,  cutting  the  circle 
;)n  each  side  of  the  centre  of  the  column  ;  then  transfer  the  distances 
1  1,  2  2,  3  3,  4  4,  5  5,  in  A,  to  1  1,  2  2,  3  3,  4  4  and  5  5,  from  the 
^.entral  line  of  the  column  both  ways,  and  through  these  parts  trace 
the  curved  lines  of  each  side  the  column. 

PLATE   XXIV. 
To  glue  up  the  Shaft  of  a  Column. 

On  Plate  XXIV.  is  shown  the  method  of  gluing  up  the  shaft  of 
columns. 

Draw  the  plans  of  the  column  intended  to  be  made  at  both  base 
and  neck,  as  shown  in  fig.  1  and  2.  In  this  example,  I  have  made 
the  column  sixteen  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base,  and  have  divided 
it  into  eight  staves.  If  the  sides  of  the  column  be  straight,  two  inch 
plank  will  be  sufficiently  thick  for  the  staves.  Make  the  joints  in  a 
fillet,  or  between  two  flutes.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  plans  show  the 
exact  width  of  each  end  of  the  staves,  and  also  the  bevel  of  their 
edges,  and  the  curve  of  the  outside.  After  the  staves  are  got  out  by 
an  accurate  plan  and  with  great  exactness,  as  they  must  be,  or  your 
work  will  be  bad,  proceed  to  glue  the  edges  of  two  of  them.  When 
the  glue  is  dry,  glue  in  blocks  on  the  inside,  as  shown  in  the  plans  at 
c  c  c,  &c.  Let  the  blocks  be  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  long.  Fit 
them  exactly  to  the  staves,  and  place  the  grain  of  the  wood  the  same 
way  as  that  of  the  column,  so  that,  if  the  wood  shrinks  or  swells,  the 
joints  will  not  open  or  be  affected  thereby.  Proceed  in  the  same 
manner  until  you  come  to  the  last  stave  ;  then  get  out  the  blocks 
sufficiently  wide  to  reach  across  the  space  left  for  the  last  stave  ;  then 
glue  the  block  on  to  each  of  the  adjoining  staves,  and  when  the  glue 


BALUSTRADES.  53 

Ls  dry,  proceed  to  glue  in  the  last  stave.  As  it  is  wider  at  the  base 
than  at  the  neck,  an  opportunity  is  offered  to  drive  it  up  to  a  joint. 
Then,  after  working  oft'  the  superfluous  wood,  and  completing  the 
flutes,  give  it  a  good  coat  of  paint,  to  prevent  its  cracking  or  beino- 
affected  in  any  way  by  the  weather. 

In  making  large  columns,  a  greater  number  of  staves  will  be  re- 
quired, and  it  will  also  be  necessary  that  the  planks  be  increased  in 
thickness. 


BALUSTRADES. 


PLATE  XXV. 

Balusters  are  sometimes  of  real  use  ;  as  in  stairs,  windows,  ter- 
races, and  on  the  sides  of  passages,  open  on  one  or  both  sides.  At 
other  times,  they  are  merely  ornamental ;  as  when  terminating  the 
up}>er  part  of  the  front  of  a  building,  as  a  screen  to  conceal  the  whole 
or  part  of  the  roof,  or  as  a  finish  to  insulated  triumphal  arches.  They 
consist  of  short  pillars  of  a  peculiar  outline,  standing  upon  a  phnth, 
and  covered  with  a  small  cornice.  No  remains  of  balusters  have 
been  found  in  any  ancient  buildings.  In  the  theatres  and  amphithea- 
tres of  the  Romans,  the  pedestals  of  the  upper  orders  were  always 
continued  through  the  arcades,  and  served  as  parapets.  The  lower 
seats  next  to  the  arena  in  the  amphitheatres,  and  those  next  to  the 
orchestra  in  the  theatres,  were  guarded  by  a  parapet,  called  the  podi- 
um. The  top  of  the  monument  of  Lysicrates,  at  Athens,  is  finished 
with  a  sort  of  parapet  or  ledge,  composed  of  honey-suckles,  solid  be- 
hind, and  open  between  every  pier.  Each  plant  is  bordered  with  a 
14 


54  ANTM. 

curved  head  ;  and  the  bottom  of  every  interval,  with  an  inverted  curve. 
Bahistrades  are  represented  in  the  works  of  the  earUest  Itahan  writers, 
who  miffht  have  seen  them  in  the  ruins  of  Roman  structures  ;  but 
none  have  been  discovered  in  modern  times.  When  a  bahistrade  fin- 
ishes a  building,  where  an  order  is  employed,  its  height  should  be 
proportioned  to  the  architecture  which  it  accompanies,  but  ought  nev- 
er to  exceed  that  of  the  entablature  on  which  it  is  placed,  or  be  less 
than  two  thirds  the  height  of  the  same.  A  good  proportion,  for  bal- 
ustrades of  this  kind,  is  to  divide  the  whole  given  height  into  thirteen 
equal  parts,  and  to  make  the  height  of  the  base  equal  to  three  of 
these  parts,  the  height  of  the  baluster  to  eight,  and  that  of  the  cornice 
to  two.  The  baluster  may  be  divided  into  seven  or  eight  parts  in 
height,  one  of  which  will  be  the  diameter  at  the  base  ;  the  one  or  the 
other,  as  the  work  which  they  accompany  is  light  or  heavy.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  balusters  should  not  exceed  half  the  breadth  of 
their  plinth,  nor  be  less  than  one  third.  On  stairs  and  inclined  planes, 
the  same  proportions  are  to  be  observed  as  on  horizontal  surfaces. 

I  have  fifiven  foiir  designs  for  balusters,  which  are  floured  on  the 
plate,  as  to  both  height  and  projection,  so  as  to  be  made  plain  to  in- 
spection. The  contour  of  the  mouldings  has  been  carefully  drawn,, 
and  it  is  believed  that  they  will  appear  graceful,  if  imitated. 


ANTtE. 


Though  the  earlier  architects  of  Greece  were  either  unacquainted 
with  the  use  of  pilasters,  or  refused  to  introduce  them  into  their  de- 
signs, they  frequently  placed  a  kind  of  square   pillars  at   the  ends   of 


PILASTERS.  55 

their  walls,  which  they  called  antae,  and  which  sometimes  projected 
to  a  considerable  distance  from  the  principal  front,  forming  the  prona- 
os,  or  vestibulum.  The  breadth  of  these  antae  was  always  much  less 
on  the  flanks  of  temples,  than  on  the  front ;  and  sometimes  they  had 
columns  between  them,  in  which  case  the  return  within  the  pronaos 
was  of  equal  breadth  with  the  front.  The  capitals  of  the  antse  never 
correspond  with  those  of  the  columns,  though  they  always  retain  some 
characteristic  marks  by  which  the  order  may  be  distinguished. 


PILASTERS, 


Pilasters  differ  from  columns  in  having  their  horizontal  sections 
of  a  rectangular  figure,  whilst  the  sections  of  columns  are  either 
complete  circles,  or  sections  of  circles  equal  to  or  greater  than  sem- 
icircles. They  are  probably  of  Roman  origin ;  there  being  but  few 
Grecian  buildings,  and  those  of  the  later  ages,  (except  the  monu- 
ment of  Thrasyllus,)  in  which  they  are  repeated  at  regular  intervals, 
as  in  the  monument  of  Philopapus  ;  but  of  their  application  in  Roman 
works  we  have  numberless  instances. 

When  ranged  with  columns  under  the  same  entablature,  or  behind 
a  row  of  columns,  they  have  their  bases  and  capitals  like  those  of 
the  columns,  with  the  corresponding  parts  at  the  same  heights  :  when 
placed  at  the  angles  of  buildings,  the  breadth  of  the  return  is  equal 
to  that  of  the  front.  The  trunks,  also,  have  frequently  the  same 
diminution  as  the  shafts  of  columns  ;  as  in  the  arches  of  Septimius 
Severus  and  of  Constantine,  the  frontispiece  of  Nero,  and  the  tem- 
ple of  Mars  Ultor  at  Rome.  In  these  cases,  the  top  of  the  trunk  is 
.equal  to  the  soffit  of  the  architravCj  the  upright  face  of  which  rests 


56  PILASTERS. 

on  the  capital,  in  the  same  perpendicular  with  the  top  of  the  pilaster. 
When  the  pilaster  is  undiminished,  and  of  the  same  breadth  as  the 
bottoms  of  the  columns,  the  face  of  the  architrave,  resting  on  the 
capital,  retreats  within  the  head  of  the  trunk,  as  in  the  Pantheon  of 
Agrippa.* 

Pilasters  may  be  either  plain  or  fluted,  without  regard  to  the  col- 
umns. Thus,  in  the  portico  of  the  Pantheon,  the  columns  are  plain 
and  the  pilasters  fluted  ;  but  in  that  of  Septimius  Severus,  the  former 
are  fluted  and  the  latter  plain  ;  the  architects  seeming  to  be  govern- 
ed by  no  other  rule  than  their  taste.  The  angles,  or  coins,  of  fluted 
pilasters,  are  frequently  strengthened  with  a  bead,  as  in  the  Panthe- 
on, and  the  flutes  are  generally  of  a  semicircular  section.  Sometimes 
the  faces  of  pilasters  are  sunk  within  a  margin,  and  the  pannels 
charged  with  foliage,  or  other  ornaments. 

When  placed  on  the  front  or  outside  of  a  building,  pilasters  should 
project  one  fourth  of  their  breadth  at  the  bottom ;  but  in  the  interior, 
or  behind  a  row  of  columns,  they  should  not  project  more  than  one 
eiffhth  of  that  breadth. 

Pilasters  are  not  only  ornamental  to  a  building,  but  they  also  tend 
to  strengthen  it  greatly;  to  which  we  may  add  that  they  become  an 
object  of  economy,  as  being  less  expensive  than  columns.  In  situa- 
tions where  they  are  cither  placed  behind  a  range  of  columns,  or  for 
the  support  of  the  extremes  of  an  entablature  across  an  opening,  they 
are  also  more  concordant  w^ith  the  walls  to  which  they  are  attached. 

Clustered  pilasters,  or  those  which  have  both  exterior  and  interior 
angles,  with  their  planes  parallel  and  perpendicular  to  the  front,  may 
be  executed  with  good  effect  when  the  order  is  plain,  as  in  the  Tus- 
can ;  but  in  the  Doric,  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders,  where  triglyphs 
and  capitals  meet  but  imperfectly  in  the  interior  angles,  such  a  junc- 

•  See  Explanation  of  Plate  VI. 


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COLONNADE.  5 


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tiou  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  The  same  may  be  ob- 
served of  Ionic  and  Corinthian  capitals  of  half  pilasters,  meeting  each 
other  in  the  interior  angles  of  rooms.  In  the  Ionic  order,  a  difference 
must  be  made  betvreen  the  capitals  of  pilasters  and  of  columns  ;  for, 
in  the  latter,  the  projection  of  the  ovolo  is  greater  than  that  of  the  vo- 
lutes :  but,  the  horizontal  section  of  the  ovolo  being  circular,  the  ovolo 
is  bent  behind  the  hem  or  border  of  the  volutes.  It  therefore  be- 
comes necessary  either  to  give  the  ovolo  but  a  small  projection,  or  to 
make  it  so  prominent  in  the  front  that  its  extremities  may  appear  to 
retire  behind  the  border  of  the  volutes. 


COLONNADE, 


Colonnade,  a  range  of  attached  or  insulated  columns,  supporting 
an  entablature,  is  named  according  to  the  number  of  columns  sup- 
porting the  entablature  :  tetrastyle,  when  there  are  four  ;  hexastyle, 
when  six  ;  octostyle,  when  eight ;  and  decastyle,  when  ten. 

The  intervals  between  the  columns,  measured  by  their  inferior  di- 
ameter, are  called  the  intercolumniation,  whence  the  area  between 
every  two  columns  is  termed  the  intercolumn. 

The  intercolumniation  is  of  five  denominations,  viz. :  the  arseos- 
tyle,  or  thinly  set,  when  the  columns  are  at  the  distance  of  four  diam- 
eters ;  the  diastyle,  when  they  are  at  three  diameters  ;  the  eustyle, 
when  at  two  and  a  quarter  ;  the  systyle,  when  at  two  ;  and  the  pyc- 
nostyle,  or  thickly  set,  when  at  the  distance  of  one  diameter  and  a 
half.  Of  these,  the  eustyle  was  in  most  general  request  nmong  the 
ancients ;  and  though,  in  modern  buildings,  both  the  eustyle  and 
15 


58  COLONNADE. 

diastyle  are  employed,  the  former  has  obtained  a  marked  preference. 
The  pycnostyle  is  frequently  rejected  from  want  of  room. 

The  intercolumniations  of  the  Doric  order  are  regulated  by  the 
number  of  triglyphs,  one  of  which  is  placed  over  every  intermediate 
column.  When  there  is  one  triglyph  over  the  interval,  it  is  called 
monotriglyph  ;  when  there  are  two,  it  is  called  ditriglyph  ;  and  so  on, 
according  to  the  progression  of  the  Greek  numerals.  The  interco- 
lumniation  of  the  Grecian  Doric  is  rarely  any  other  than  the  mono- 
triglyph, there  being  but  two  deviations  from  it  at  Athens,  in  the  Doric 
portico  and  in  the  prophylsea ;  and  even  in  these  instances,  the  ex- 
ception applies  only  to  the  middle  intercolumniations,  which  are  ditrig- 
lyph, and  were  necessary  from  their  situation,  being  opposite  to  the 
principal  entrances.  Indeed,  from  the  massive  and  bold  character  of 
the  Grecian  Doric,  the  monotriglyph  succeeded  best ;  but  in  the 
Roman  Doric  it  would  be  inconvenient,  because  the  passage  between 
the  columns  would  be  too  narrow,  especially  in  small  buildings  ;  and 
therefore  the  ditriglyph  is  to  be  preferred. 

When  the  solid  parts  of  the  masonry  of  a  range  of  arcades  are 
decorated  with  the  orders,  the  intercolumns  necessarily  become  wide, 
and  the  intercolumniation  is  regulated  by  the  breadth  of  the  arcades 
and  of  the  piers.  Vignola  used  the  same  intercolumniation  in  all  his 
orders,  and,  though  this  practice  is  condemned  by  some,  it  is  founded 
upon  a  right  principle,  as  it  preserves  a  constant  ratio  between  the 
columns  and  the  intervals. 

Coupled,  grouped,  or  clustered  columns,  seem  not  to  have  been  used 
by  the  ancients. 

The  moderns  seldom  employ  more  than  one  row  of  columns  in 
either  external  or  internal  colonnades  ;  for  in  double  rows  the  back 
range  destroys  the  perspective  regularity  of  that  of  the  front ;  and 
the  rays  of  light,  proceeding   from   both    ranges,   produce   confusion. 


€ 


ORDERS  VPON  ORDERS.  59 

Pilasters,  placed  behind  a  row  of  insulated  columns,  are  liable  to  the 
same  objection,  except  that  the  relief  is  stronger,  owing  to  the  rotun- 
dity of  the  one  being  contrasted  with  the  flat  surface  of  the  other. 

In  buildings  upon  a  small  scale,  the  intercolumniations,  or,  at  least, 
the  central  one,  must  be  broader  than  the  positive  dimensions  of  the 
pillars  would  admit. 


ORDERS    UPON    ORDERS 


In  placing  one  order  above  another,  we  shall  be  naturally  led,  by 
the  known  laws  of  gravity,  to  give  the  strongest  and  heaviest  the 
lower  place,  and  the  weakest  and  lightest  the  upper.  Symmetry  and 
strength  will  likewise  direct  us  to  keep  all  their  axes  in  the  same  ver- 
tical line. 

In  columns  of  equal  diameters,  the  altitudes  increase  from  the 
Tuscan,  by  the  gradations  of  the  Doric  and  Ionic,  to  the  Corinthian. 
In  this  progression,  we  perceive  that  the  Tuscan  is  stronger  than  the 
Doric,  the  Doric  than  the  Ionic,  and  the  Ionic  than  the  Corinthian: 
consequently,  if  the  Doric  be  the  lowest  order,  the  succeeding  one 
must  be  the  Ionic  ;  if  a  third  be  added,  it  must  be  the  Corinthian. 

When  a  front  of  a  building  is  to  have  two  or  more  orders  in  the 
altitude,  the  succession  must  be  complete,  or  the  symmetry  will  be 
destroyed  by  the  abrupt  contrast  of  the  parts.  In  attached  columns, 
the  superior  may  be  permitted  to  recede,  without  danger  either  of 
greatly  offending  the  eye,  or  of  impairing  the  strength  of  the  structure. 
But  when  the  stories  of  orders  are  insulated,  the  axes  of  the  superior 
and  inferior  columns  must  be  kept  in  the  same  vertical  lines. 

The  first  and  second  orders  should  stand  on  plinths,  as  likewise  the 


60  PEDIMENTS. 

third,  when  there  is  one ;  the  point  of  view  regulating  those  of  the 
upper  stories.  In  this  case,  pedestals  should  be  omitted  in  the  up- 
per orders  ;  but  if  there  be  one,  or  a  balustrade  under  the  windows, 
the  base  and  cornice  should  have  but  a  small  projection,  and  be  con- 
tinued to  profile  upon  the  sides  of  the  columns. 

When  stories  of  arcades  are  raised  one  upon  another,  and  the  piers 
decorated  with  orders,  the  inferior  columns  should  stand  on  plinths, 
and  those  of  the  upper  stories  on  pedestals,  that  the  arches  may  re- 
ceive a  due  proportion. 

In  some  cases,  instead  of  employing  several  orders  one  above 
another,  the  ground  floor  of  a  building  is  made  in  the  form  of  a  base- 
ment, on  which  is  placed  the  order  by  which  the  principal  story  is 
decorated. 


PEDIMENTS 


These  ornaments  probably  owe  their  origin  to  the  inclined  roofs 
of  the  primitive  huts.  They  consist  of  a  horizontal  cornice,  repre- 
senting a  tie  beam,  and  two  others  of  equal  inclination  over  it,  indic- 
ative of  rafters  ;  or  the  latter  are  exchanged  for  an  arched  one.  The 
surface  included  within  these  cornices  is  called  a  tympanum ;  which, 
of  course,  is  either  a  triangle  or  the  segment  of  a  circle. 

In  the  ancient  buildings  of  Greece,  we  find  only  the  triangular  ped- 
iment ;  but  in  those  of  Rome,  both  triangular  and  circular  are  to  be 
met  with ;  and  in  rows  of  openings,  or  niches,  both  kinds  are  employ- 
ed in  alternate  succession, — though  they  seem  to  have  preferred 
the  triangular  form  for  doors,  windows  and  gates,  and  to  have  ap- 
plied the  circular  pediment  to  the  covering  of  large  or  small  bodies 
promiscuously. 


PEDIMENTS.  61 

Pediments,  among  the  Romans,  were  exclusively  appropriated  to 
sacred  edifices,  till  Csesar  obtained  leave  of  the  senate  to  cover  his 
house  with  a  painted  roof,  after  the  manner  of  the  temples. 

The  ancients  introduced  but  few  pediments  into  their  buildings , 
even  the  Romans  usually  contenting  themselves  with  a  single  one  to 
adorn  the  middle  or  principal  part. 

Vitruvius  has  given  the  following  direction  for  finding  the  pitch  of 
a  pediment.  "  Divide  the  space  between  the  extremities  of  the  cy- 
matium  of  the  corona  into  nine  equal  parts,  and  take  one  for  the 
height  of  the  tympanum."  This  rule  has  been  considered  as  too  low  : 
but  it  must  be  recollected,  that  of  the  octostyle  portico  of  the  Pan- 
theon, at  Athens,  is  nearly  of  the  proportion  here  described  ;  that  of 
the  hexastyle  portico  of  the  temple  of  Theseus  is  about  an  eighth  ; 
that  of  the  Ionic  temple  on  the  Illyssus,  and  of  the  Doric  portico,  are 
about  one  seventh  ;  and  the  tympanum  of  the  pediment  over  the  door 
of  the  Tower  of  the  Winds,  is  about  one  fifth  of  the  span ;  all  which 
edifices  are  Athenian. 

From  this  comparison,  a  kind  of  reciprocal  ratio  seems  to  exist 
between  the  extension  of  the  base  of  the  tympanum  and  its  height ; 
and,  indeed,  were  a  fixed  ratio  applied  to  both  large  and  small  pedi- 
ments, the  latter  would  frequently  consist  of  a  cornice  only,  without 
any  tympanum.  It  is  therefore  with  good  reason  that  the  pitch  of 
small  pediments  is  made  higher  than  large  ones. 

When  pediments  are  to  be  covered  with  either  slates  or  shingles, 
they  cannot  with  safety  be  less  in  height  than  two  ninths  of  their 
base. 

It  is  an  observation  of  Vitruvius,  that  "  the  Greeks  never  used  mu- 
lules,  modillions,  or  dentils,  in  the  front,  wherein  the  end  of  the  roof  , 
tippears,  because  the  ends  of  the  rafters  and  of  the  laths,  which  sup- 
16 


62  AITICS. 

port  the  tiles,  only  appear  at  the  eaves  of  the  building ;  and  as  mu- 
tules  and  dentils  originated  from  the  projecting  ends  of  the  rafters 
and  laths,  it  would  have  been  absurd  to  introduce  them  into  the 
pediment,  where  the  exemplars  are  themselves  to  be  seen."  We  find 
in  the  Grecian  remains,  that,  though  neither  mutules,  dentils  nor 
modillions  are  employed  in  the  sloping  sides,  mutules  are  constantly 
used  in  the  horizontal  cornice.  In  edifices  of  the  period  of  Roman 
domination  in  Greece,  indeed,  we  sometimes  may  observe  them  in  the 
sloping  cornices  ;  but  they  must  be  considered  as  innovations.  At 
Rome,  we  find  examples  of  modillions  in  the  Pantheon,  and  in  the  fron- 
tispiece of  Nero ;  and  in  the  temple  of  Fortune  dentils  are  used.  In 
the  inchned  cornices,  the  sides  of  the  modillions  and  dentils  are 
planes  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  and  to  the  front  of  the  edifice, 
and  in  the  same  vertical  planes  of  those  of  the  horizontal  cornice. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  two  uppermost  mouldings  of  the  cor- 
nice are  always  omitted  in  the  horizontal  one  of  a  pediment ;  that 
part  of  the  profile  being  directed  upwards,  to  finish  the  inclined 
cornices. 

The  face  of  the  tympan  is  always  placed  on  a  line  perpendicular 
with  the  face  of  the  frieze. 


ATTICS 


Among  the  Athenians,  it  was  a  rule  to  conceal  the  roofs  of  their 
buildings  ;  for  which  purpose  they  crowned  their  cornices  with  low 
square  pillars,  of  a  form  nearly  approaching  that  of  a  pedestal,  which 
have  obtained  the    appellation   of  Attics,  from  the   country  in  which 


NICHES.  63 

ihey  were  iirst  or  chiefly  employed,  though  no  remains  are  now  to  be 
discovered  among  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of-  Athens. 

Roman  Attics  are  to  be  seen  in  the  remains  of  the  triumphal 
arches,  and  in  the  piazza  of  Nerva.  In  the  arch  of  Constantine,  the 
columns  are  surmounted  with  pedestals  as  high  as  the  base  of  the 
Attic,  upon  which  are  placed  insulated  statues.  At  Thessalonica, 
there  is  an  Attic  over  a  Corinthian  colonnade,  with  breaks  forming 
dwarf  pilasters  over  the  columns,  as  in  the  arch  of  Constantme. 
The  Attic,  which  is  carried  round  the  two  courts  of  the  great  temple 
of  Balbec,  is  also  broken  into  dwarf  pilasters  over  the  columns  and 
pilasters  of  the  order ;  which  dwarf  pilasters  are  surmounted  with 
blocking  courses,  wherein  statues  are  supposed  to  have  stood. 

In  all  these  remains,  the  Attics  are  disproportional ;  some  of  them 
being  nearly  one  half  of  the  height  of  the  order.  The  moderns 
make  their  height  equal  to  that  of  the  entablature ;  and  the  propor- 
tion of  the  members  may  be  regulated  as  in  the  cases  of  pedestals. 


NICHES 


These,  among  the  Romans,  have  either  a  circular  or  rectangular 
plan.  The  heads  of  those  of  the  circular  kind  are  generally  spher- 
ical. 

The  plans  of  niches  with  cyUndrical  backs  should  be  semicircular, 
when  the  thickness  of  the  walls  will  admit  of  it ;  and  the  depth  of 
those  upon  rectangular  plans  should  be  half  of  their  breadth,  or  as 
deep  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  statues  they  are  to  contain.  Their 
heights  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  statues,  or  on   the   general 


64  VASES. 

form  of  groups  introduced  ;  yet  seldom  exceeding  twice  and  a  half 
their  width,  nor  being  less  than  twice. 

In  point  of  decorations,  niches  admit  of  all  such  as  are  applicable 
to  windows  ;  and,  whether  their  heads  be  horizontal,  cylindrical  or 
spherical,  the  enclosure  nrny  be  rectangular.  In  antique  remains,  we 
frequently  meet  with  tabernacles  as  ornaments,  disposed  with  alter- 
nate and  arched  pediments  ;  the  character  of  the  architecture  should 
be  similar  to  that  placed  in  the  same  range  with  them. 

Niches  are  sometimes  disposed  between  columns  and  pilasters,  and 
sometimes  ranged  alternately,  in  the  same  level  with  windows.  In 
either  case,  they  may  be  ornamented  or  plain,  as  the  space  will  admit ; 
but  in  the  latter,  they  should  be  of  the  same  dimensions  with  the 
aperture  of  the  windows.  When  the  intervals  between  the  columns 
or  pilasters  happen  to  be  very  narrow,  niches  had  better  be  omitted 
than  have  a  disproportionate  figure,  or  be  of  a  diminutive  size. 

When  intended  for  statues,  vases,  or  other  works  of  sculpture,  they 
should  be  contrived  to  exhibit  them  to  the  best  advantage  ;  and,  con- 
sequently, the  plainer  the  niche  the  better  will  it  answer  the  design, 
as  every  species  of  ornament,  whether  of  mouldings  or  sculpture,  has 
a  tendency  to  confuse  the  outline. 


VASES, 


PLATE   XXVI. 


On  this  plate  are  a  series  of  designs  for  vases.  When  vases  are 
used  on  pedestals,  posts  to  fences,  and  for  such  like  purposes,  their 
largest  diameter  may  be  made  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  pedestal, 
or  post,  on  which  they  are  to  be  placed,  or  from  that  size  to  one  fourth 


i5"K.s]p>'p!   1  OT;   r-n- 


FRONTISPIECE.  65 

part  less,  as  judgment  may  dictate.  As  the  heights  and  projections 
of  all  the  members  to  each  vase  are  figured  on  the  plate,  I  trust  that, 
by  an  examination,  they  will  be  clearly  understood. 


FRONTISPIECE. 


PLATE   XXVII. 

On  this  plate  is  a  design  for  a  frontispiece  of  the  most  simple  kind. 
It  may  be  used  with  success  where  the  facade  of  the  house  is  very 
plain.  To  proportion  the  architrave,  divide  the  width  of  the  door  into 
five  equal  parts,  and  make  the  width  of  the  architrave  equal  to  one 
of  these  parts. 

Fig.  1  shows  an  elevation  of  the  jamb  to  the  door,  and  also  a  sec- 
tion of  the  threshold  and  impost  between  the  door  and  sash. 

Fig.  2  shows  a  section  of  a  part  of  the  stile  and  panel  of  the 
door,  at  full  size. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  moulding  of  the  threshold,  also  at  full  size. 

A  scale  of  feet  and  inches  is  annexed,  by  which  any  part  of  the 
design  may  be  measured. 

PLATE   XXVIII. 

On  this  plate  is  a  plan  and  elevation  of  a  Venetian  entrance, 
decorated  with  pilasters  and  an  entablature,  which  are  so  plain  and 
simple,  that  they  may  be  easily  wrought  in  stone.  The  pilasters  in 
this  example  are  seven  diameters  in  height ;  but  they  may  be  made 
seven  and  a  half,  or  eight,  when  a  lighter  proportion  is  desired.  The 
17 


66  IONIC  PORTICO. 

capital  and  entablature  are  taken  from  Plate  XIV.     The  other  parts 
of  the  design  may  be  measured  by  the  scale  of  feet  and  inches   an 
nexed. 


IONIC    PORTICO. 


PLATES  XXIX.  and  XXX. 

Ojs  Plate  XXIX.  in  fig.  1,  is  represented  the  plan,  which  clearly 
shows  how  to  place  the  columns  and  pilasters  of  the  portico. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  soffit  of  the  cornice,  architrave  and  ceiling,  in- 
verted. A  A  is  that  part  of  the  soffit  of  the  architrave  which  is  di- 
rectly over  the  capital  of  the  columns ;  and  B  B  B  B  that  directly 
over  the  capital  of  the  pilasters. 

Fig.  4  shows  a  section  of  a  part  of  the  panelling. 

On  Plate  XXX.  is  shown  the  elevation,  the  proportions  of  which 
are  taken  from  the  Ionic  Order,  Example  No.  3,  Plate  XII. 

On  Plate  XXIX.  fig.  3,  is  a  section  of  a  cornice,  suitably  con- 
structed for  the  inclined  sides  of  a  pediment.  I  know  of  no  deter- 
minate rule  by  which  the  general  proportions  of  a  frontispiece  can  be 
ascertained,  in  all  situations.  He  who  takes  the  most  comprehensive 
view  of  all  the  circumstances  connected  with  the  building  to  which 
the  frontispiece  is  to  be  attached,  will  be  the  most  likely  to  produce 
the  most  successful  effects,  by  a  true  proportion. 

The  frontispiece  must,  in  some  degree,  be  in  proportion  to  the 
house  it  is  to  accompany,  with  respect  to  both  size  and  character. 
If  the  house  be  large,  and  highly  ornamented,  the  frontispiece  must 
also  be  large,  and  the  ornaments  partake  of  the  character  of  the 
house. 


67 
WINDOWS. 


PLATE   XXXI. 

The  size  of  the  apertures  depends  chiefly  on  the  size  and  destina- 
tion of  the  building.  The  height  ought  to  be  about  twice  their 
breadth  ;  and  the  breadth  of  the  piers  is  generally  from  one  to  one 
and  a  half  the  breadth  of  the  window :  but  this  proportion  must 
often  be  departed  from,  in  order  to  admit  of  external  and  internal 
decorations.  The  sills  of  windows  should,  in  common  edifices,  be 
placed  at  a  height  of  from  two  feet  two,  to  two  feet  six  inches  from 
the  floor.  In  elegant  apartments,  the  sills  are  frequently  placed  at 
a  height  of  seven  or  eight  inches  from  the  floor,  and,  in  that  case, 
the  windows  are  made  in  height  more  than  twice  the  breadth.  It  is 
common  in  different  stories  to  have  different  heights  to  windows,  de- 
creasing in  the  upper  stories,  until  in  the  Attics  they  are  often  made 
in  height  equal  to  their  breadth.  Windows  ought  always  to  be 
placed  vertically,  one  over  the  other,  and  not  too  near  the  angles  of 
the  building.  Fig.  2  represents  a  sash,  frame,  window  cap  and  sill, 
set  into  a  brick  wall.  Fig.  1  shows  a  section  through  the  sash,  frame, 
cap  and  sill,  and  a  part  of  the  brick  wall. 

A  stone  cap  over  a  window  indicates  strength,  its  object  being  to 
support  the  bricks  which  rest  upon  it.  All  embellishments,  there- 
fore, that  are  made  on  its  front,  must  project  from  a  vertical  line  of 
the  wall.  Never  suffer  any  of  the  cuttings  to  go  beyond  this  hne, 
because  that  would  indicate  weakness,  and,  of  course,  would  be  highly 
improper. 


68  DORMER  WINDOW— FRONT  FENCES. 

DORMER   WINDOW 


PLATE  XXXII. 

On  this  plate  is  shown  a  design  for  a  dormer  window,  suitably 
constructed  for  being  placed  on  the  roof  of  a  building.  It  is  drawn 
on  a  scale  large  enough  to  make  it  plain,  without  further  explanation. 
Fig.  1  shows  a  front,  and  fig.  2  a  side  elevation. 

Fig.  3  and  4,  on  the  same  plate,  show  designs  of  a  species  of  the 
guiloche,  which  may  sometimes  be  used  with  good  effect  on  fences, 
railings,  &c. 


FRONT   FENCES. 


PLATE  XXXIIL 

On  this  plate  are  three  designs  for  fences,  suitable  for  the  enclo- 
sure of  a  country  residence,  which  may  be  made  of  wood,  when  iron 
is  not  to  be  obtained,  or  when  expense  is  to  be  avoided :  also  two  de- 
signs for  gates,  to  be  made  of  the  same  material.  Mouldings  do  not 
form  any  part  of  the  composition  of  these  designs.  Their  construc- 
tion is  bold  and  simple,  and  will,  if  well  executed,  produce  a  more 
chaste  and  pleasing  effect  than  if  the  cornice,  top  rail  and  base  were 
composed  of  small,  trifling  mouldings,  and  is  the  means  of  saving 
considerable  expense. 

It  is  not  supposed  that  the  size  of  these  examples  will  suit  all 
situations.     There   are  many  situations   which   require   the   size   of 


EAVE  CORNICES.  69 

front  fences  to  be  varied  ;  as,  for  instance,  when  the  house  is  very 
large,  and  located  on  an  elevated  piece  of  ground,  and  at  a  considera- 
ble distance  from  the  road  :  in  this  case,  the  fence  should  be  of  the 
largest  dimensions.  But  if  the  house  be  small,  and  so  situated  as  to 
have  the  fence  near  it,  the  fence  ought  then  to  be  small  and  low,  so 
that  it  may  not  appear  as  a  principal  in  the  structure. 


EAVE    CORNICES, 


PLATE  XXXIV. 
On  this  plate  are  four  designs  for  eave  cornices.  To  proportion 
their  height,  divide  the  height  of  the  building,  on  which  A  is  to  be 
used,  into  twenty-four  equal  parts,  and  make  the  height  of  the  cor- 
nice on  the  wall  equal  to  one  of  these  parts.  If  B  or  D  is  to  be  used, 
divide  the  height  of  the  building  into  twenty-five  parts,  and  make  the 
height  of  the  cornice  equal  to  one  of  them.  If  C  is  to  be  used,  di- 
vide the  height  into  thirty  equal  parts,  and  give  one  of  them  to  the 
lieight  of  the  cornice. 

PLATE  XXXV. 
On  this  plate  are  designs  for  eave  cornices  with  friezes.  In  de- 
termining their  height  and  proportion,  judgment  is  to  be  used.  If  a 
house  have  a  front  of  forty  or  fifty  feet,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make 
the  cornice  somewhat  larger  than  if  the  front  only  occupy  a  space 
of  twenty  or  twenty-five  feet.  As  a  general  proportion,  give  to  the 
height  of  the  cornice  on  the  wall,  without  the  frieze,  from  one  twenty- 
fifth  to  one  thirtieth  of  the  height  of  the  wall. 
18 


7a  STUCCO  CORNICES. 

STUCCO   CORNICES, 


PLATES  XXXVI.  and  XXXVII. 

On  these  plates  are  designs  for  stucco  cornices.  What  has 
heretofore  been  said  with  regard  to  the  proportions  of  columns  and 
cornices,  will  apply  equally  well  here.  There  are  many  circumstan- 
ces which  ought  materially  to  affect  the  size  of  cornices  in  rooms 
of  the  same  height ;  such  as  the  size  of  the  room,  and  the  style 
of  the  finish  of  the  other  parts  of  it.  If  the  finish  generally  be 
light,  the  cornice  ought  also  to  be  light ;  and  if  the  finish  of  the 
room  be  composed  of  large,  bold  parts,  make  the  cornice  conforma- 
ble thereto. 

As  stucco  cornices  occupy  more  space  on  the  ceiling  than  on  the 
vertical  walls,  I  have  thought  it  more  proper  to  determine  their 
projection  than  their  height ;  and  more  particularly  so,  as,  in  many 
situations,  a  very  small  height  only  can  be  had.  In  such  cases,  the 
defect  can  in  some  degree  be  remedied  by  adding  to  the  projection. 
As  a  general  rule,  give  to  the  projection  of  the  cornice  five  eighths 
of  an  inch  for  each  foot  in  the  height.  If  the  room  be  ten  feet  in 
height,  make  the  cornice  project  six  and  a  quarter  inches,  or  fifty 
eighths  of  an  inch ;  then  divide  that  distance  into  as  many  parts  as 
are  contained  in  the  projection  of  the  cornice  you  intend  to  make  use 
of,  and  give  those  parts  to  the  different  members  of  the  cornice,  in 
both  height  and  projection,  as  figured  on  the  plate. 


FINISHING.     WINDOWS.  7] 

FINISHING.    WINDOWS. 


PLATE  XXXVIII. 

Fig.  1  shows  a  section  of  part  of  a  brick  wall,  sash  frame,  window 
shutters,  back  lining,  rough  furrings,  stucco,  grounds  and  architrave. 
A,  top  of  stone  sill ;  E,  top  of  wooden  sill  to  sash  frame ;  a,  outside 
casing  ;  c,  pulley  stile  ;  h,  ovolo  ;  b  back  side  casing  next  to  bricks ; 
d,  inside  casing  to  which  the  shutters  are  hung ;  e,  parting  strip  be- 
tween weights  ;  q,  r,  weights ;  /,  parting  bead ;  g,  inside  bead  to 
sash  frame  ;  I,  back  lining  ;  m,  rough  furrings ;  n,  grounds  ;  o,  stuc- 
co ;  p,  architrave ;  and  *',  k,  shutters. 

Fig.  2  is  a  section  of  the  cap  to  a  sash  frame,  c,  edge  of  outside 
casing ;  h,  parting  slip  ;  a,  inside  bead. 

Fig.  3.  g,  section  of  sill  to  sash  frame  ;  i,  back  under  window ;  h, 
bead  connected  with  sill  and  back ;  d,  inside  bead  ;  e,  parting  slip ;  f, 
face  casing. 

Fig.  4  shows  a  section  of  the  meeting  rails,  and  parts  of  the  upright 
bars  of  the  sash,  drawn  at  full  size.  B  is  a  section  of  a  sash  bar, 
and  C  and  D  are  sections  of  the  stile,  the  mouldings,  and  part  of  a 
panel  to  shutters,  also  drawn  at  full  size. 


72  INSIDE  DOORS. 

INSIDE    DOORS. 


PLATE  XXXIX. 

Doors  are  generally  varied  in  their  dimensions,  according  to  the 
height  of  the  story,  and  magnitude  of  the  building  in  which  they 
are  used.  The  aperture  of  those  of  the  smallest  dimensions  must 
be  of  a  size  sufficient  to  allow  a  man  to  pass  easily  through  them : 
the  smallest  door  cannot,  therefore,  be  much  less  than  two  feet  six 
inches  wide,  by  six  feet  six  inches  high  ;  nor  should  they  be  more 
than  three  feet  eight  inches  in  breadth,  by  eight  feet  in  height,  in 
private  houses.  When  folding  doors  are  used  for  the  purpose  of 
connecting  rooms  by  large  apertures,  it  will  be  advisable  to  make 
them  double  the  width  of  the  other  doors,  and  very  often  to  exceed 
that  width ;  their  height  ought  in  general  to  exceed  that  of  the  other 
doors,  in  the  same  room,  by  twelve  or  fifteen  inches.  A  good  propor- 
tion for  small  doors  is  three  to  seven,  and  for  very  large  ones  one  to 
two  ;  for  rooms  about  sixteen  by  eighteen  or  twenty  feet,  and  ten  to 
twelve  feet  high,  a  good  proportion  for  the  doors  will  be  three  by 
seven  feet.  Fig.  4  is  a  design  of  a  door  with  five  panels,  without 
mouldings,  as  is  shown  by  fig.  1,  which  represents  a  section  of  the 
stile  and  panel  at  large.  Fig.  3  is  a  design  for  a  door  with  eight 
panels  ;  and  fig.  2  shows  a  section  of  the  moulding,  a  part  of  the 
panel,  and  also  a  part  of  the  stile,  drawn  at  full  size.  The  doors  are 
drawn  from  a  scale  of  one  inch  to  a  foot. 


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SUR-BASE  MOULDINGS.— BASE  MOULDINGS.  73 

SUR-BASE    MOULDINGS. 


PLATE    XL. 

On  this  plate  are  six  designs  for  sur-base  mouldings,  drawn  at  full 
size  for  practice.  I  have  given  these  designs  a  place  here,  although 
the  sur-base  and  dado  seem  at  present  to  be  quite  out  of  fashion  ;  nor, 
indeed,  do  I  think  it  very  desirable  that  they  should  be  again  received 
into  favor.  It  is  my  opinion,  that  a  room  finished  vv^ith  a  base  only, 
presents  a  more  chaste  and  pleasing  appearance  than  when  encum- 
bered with  a  dado  and  sur-base.  When  plastering  is  substituted  for 
the  boards  of  the  dado,  it  is  less  expensive,  and  a  greater  preventive 
against  the  cold  air. 


BASE    MOULDINGS. 


PLATES  XLL  XLIL  XLIIL  and  XLIV. 

On  these  plates  are  nineteen  designs  for  base  mouldings,  all  of 
which  are  drawn  in  full  size  for  practice.  As  a  very  good  fashion 
seems  now  to  prevail,  of  not  using  either  dados  or  sur-bases,  it  is 
necessary  to  make  the  base  somewhat  larger  than  it  was  when  these 
were  in  fashion.  It  will  be  proper  to  make  the  plinth  to  these  designs 
for  base  mouldings  about  seven  inches  wide  ;  in  small,  low  rooms, 
their  size  may  be  somewhat  reduced.  Correct  or  incorrect  judgment, 
in  considering  the  size  and  situation  of  the  room,  when  base  mouldings 
are  to  be  used,  will  always  have  a  decided  effect  on  their  good  or  bad 
appearance.  19 


74  '  ARCHITRAVES. 


ARCHITRAVES. 


PLATES  XLV.  XLVI.  and  XLVII. 
These  plates  contain  designs  for  architraves.  They  are  all  drawn 
at  full  size  for  practice  ;  but  as  it  is  not  probable  that  they  will  suit 
every  situation,  I  shall  give  some  general  rules  for  their  proportion. 
Doors  and  windows  in  the  same  room  are  necessarily  of  different 
heights  and  widths,  the  windows  always  being  considerably  larger 
than  the  doors  ;  but  it  would  be  highly  improper  to  make  two  widths 
of  architraves.  It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  make  a  compro- 
mise between  them.  I  have  in  practice  generally  divided  the  width  of 
the  door  into  six  equal  parts,  and  given  one  to  the  width  of  the  archi- 
trave :  say,  if  the  door  is  three  feet  wide,  one  sixth  would  be  six  inches, 
which  would  be  rather  too  wide  for  the  door  ;  but  as  the  windows  in 
the  same  room  would  be  from  ten  to  twelve  inches  wider  than  the 
door,  six  inches  would  be  rather  too  narrow  for  the  window,  if  its 
size  only  was  to  be  considered  ;  I  therefore  should  make  the  archi- 
trave one  sixth  of  the  width  of  the  door. 

PLATE  XLVIII. 

Shows  the  manner  of  applying  the  plinth  under  the  architrave  to 
doors  and  windows,  and  also  the  application  of  the  block  at  the  upper 
angles  of  the  door  or  window  against  which  the  architrave  butts. 

D  is  a  section  of  the  block  and  architrave,  and  shows  clearly  how 
far  the  block  projects  front  of  the  architrave. 

E  is  a  section  of  the  plinth  and  architrave,  and  shows  how  far  the 
plinth  projects  front  of  the  architrave. 


CHIMNEY  PIECES.  75 

F  is  a  section  from  a  to  6  through  the  block,  showing  the  formation 
of  the  panel.  It  is  both  proper  and  common  to  ornament  these  pan- 
els with  rosettes,  from  the  plainest  kind  up  to  the  most  rich  and  beau- 
tiful ;  and  where  the  panel  is  large,  it  may  be  enriched  with  the  honey- 
suckle, or  any  other  appropriate  ornament. 

All  the  figures  on  this  plate  are  drawn  at  half  the  full  size. 


CHIMNEY  PIECES, 


PLATES  XLIX.  L.   and  LI. 

On  these  plates  are  three  designs  for  chimney  pieces.  These 
designs  are  formed  suitably  for  marble,  but  may  be  constructed  of 
wood. 

In  the  decoration  of  chimney  pieces,  the  wildest  fancy  has  been 
mdulged.  Their  composition  should  conform  to  the  style  and  char- 
acter of  the  room  in  which  they  are  placed,  whether  of  marble  or  of 
wood.  If  of  wood,  they  may  be  painted  black  and  varnished,  which 
wdl  give  them  a  neat  appearance,  and  render  them  less  liable  to  be 
soiled  with  smoke  than  when  painted  a  Hght  color. 

A  A  on  Plate  XLIX.  shows  the  plan  of  the  pilasters  ;  C  C,  a  sec- 
tion of  the  jambs  ;  and  D,  the  section  of  the  back.  The  jambs  and 
back  are  intended  to  be  made  of  soap  stone,  but  may  be  made  of  any 
other  kind  of  stone  which  will  stand  the  heat  of  the  fire,  or  of  iron. 
a  a  a  a  represents  the  front  edge  of  the  cornice,  or  shelf  E  E  shows 
how  the  plinth  of  the  pilasters,  and  that  of  the  room,  should  be  con- 
nected with  each  other. 


76  GUILOCHE  AND  FRETS. 

On  Plate  L.  is  shown  the  plan  of  the  fire  place,  E  E  being  the  plan 
of  the  pilasters,  G  G  that  of  the  jambs,  F  the  back,  and  D  D  the 
facings.  C  shows  an  elevation  of  one  of  the  jambs,  with  the  top  end 
narrowed  off  to  its  proper  width.  Every  part  of  these  designs  can 
be  accurately  measured  by  the  scale  of  feet  and  inches  annexed  to 
each  plate. 

Open  fire  places  for  burning  wood  ought  to  be  proportioned,  in  some 
degree,  to  the  room  in  which  they  are  placed.  It  is,  however,  diflicult 
to  lay  down  any  precise  rule  for  their  proportion.  An  open  fire  place 
cannot  be  made  much  less  than  three  feet  in  breadth,  if  the  room  be 
not  more  than  twelve  feet  square,  and  should  never  exceed  three  feet 
nine  inches  in  any  room,  whatever  be  its  size.  A  fire  place  of  three 
feet  opening  between  the  jambs  should  have  an  opening  from  the 
hearth  upwards  of  about  two  feet  seven  inches. 

Where  open  fire  places  are  made  for  burning  coals,  the  grate  set 
in  them  should  be  about  one  inch  in  length  for  every  foot  in  the  length 
of  the  room  ;  that  is  to  say,  if  the  room  is  twenty  feet  square,  make 
the  grate  twenty  inches  long,  and  about  ten  inches  deep.  The  top 
bar  of  the  grate  should  not  be  less  than  eighteen  inches,  nor  more 
than  twenty-four,  from  the  hearth. 


GUILOCHE    AND    FRETS. 


PLATE   LII. 

On  this  plate  are  given  seven  various  ornamental  pieces  of  the 
guiloche  and  fret,  intended  for  friezes,  bands,  panels,  and  va- 
rious  other   decorations,    the    use   of  which,   if   tastefully   employed. 


CARPENTRY.  77 

will  not  fail  to  produce  a  chaste  and  pleasing  effect.  They  lay  claim 
to  the  highest  antiquity,  having  been  used  by  the  Chinese  in  their 
earliest  periods,  from  whom  they  were  carried  into  Egypt,  and  from 
thence  into  Greece,  embellishing  their  buildings  as  well  as  their  vases. 
From  the  nature  of  their  construction,  an  endless  variety  of  forms 
may  be  obtained. 

A  is  composed  of  parallel  right  lines,  which  form  geometrical 
squares  of  any  magnitude,  connected  together  by  quadrants  of  a  cir- 
cle on  the  outsides.  The  proportions  of  the  parts  to  each  other  are 
figured  on  the  plate.  Fig.  B,  C  and  D  are  composed  of  circles,  as  is 
evident  from  inspection,  and  their  relative  proportions  are  figured  on 
the  plate.  E,  F  and  G  are  three  different  designs  for  frets,  with  their 
divisions  marked  on  the  plate. 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE   LIII. 

On  fig.  1  is  shown  a  design  for  a  roof,  suitably  constructed  to  cover 
a  dwelling  house,  where  it  is  desired  to  use  the  space  between  the 
rafters  for  lodging  rooms.  The  height  of  the  pitch  is  equal  to  two 
sevenths  of  the  base  fine  of  the  roof.  This  is  a  good  pitch  for  either 
slates  or  shingles.  The  span  of  this  example  is  calculated  for  forty- 
four  feet,  but  it  may  be  extended  to  fifty  or  more  by  proportionally 
enlarging  the  size  of  the  timbers  of  which  it  is  composed. 

A  shows  the  method  of  confining  the  king  post  to  the  tie  beams 
by  bolts.  In  this  example^  the  bolt  should  be  about  one  inch  in  diam- 
eter, with  a  strong  head  of  about  one  and  three  fourths  of  an  inch 
20 


78  CARPENTRY. 

in  diameter  ;  and  a  plate  of  iron  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch  thick 
and  of  about  four  by  five  inches  surface,  sliould  be  placed  between 
the  tie  beam  and  the  head  of  the  bolt.  The  nut,  which  is  let  into  the 
king  post,  should  be  three  fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  about  three 
inches  square.  One  nut  will  be  sufficient  here,  but  when  the  strain 
is  very  great,  two  will  be  required. 

The  tenon,  connecting  the  king  post  with  the  tie  beam,  is  not  re- 
quired to  be  more  than  two  inches  long.  The  size  of  the  timbers  of 
this  example  may  be  as  follows  :  tie  beam,  seven  by  twelve  inches  ; 
principal  rafters  seven  by  ten  at  foot,  and  seven  by  eight  at  head  ; 
queen  posts,  seven  by  ten  ;  straining  beam,  seven  by  eleven  ;  purloins, 
eight  by  nine  ;  small  rafters,  two  and  three  fourths  by  five  ;  ridge 
pole,  four  by  seven  ;  braces,  four  by  seven  inches. 

Fig.  2  shows  a  design  for  a  trussed  roof,  which  is  of  the  same  pitch 
as  that  of  fig.  1,  and  is  calculated  for  a  span  of  seventy  feet.  The 
construction  of  this  roof  is  very  ancient,  strong  and  simple  ;  it  has 
been  executed  with  great  success  for  churches,  theatres,  and  other 
large  buildings,  and  is  the  least  expensive  and  the  best  constructed 
plan  of  any  now  in  use.  Size  of  timbers  is  as  follows  :  tie  beams, 
eight  by  twelve  ;  principal  rafters,  eight  by  ten  at  foot,  and  eight 
inches  square  at  the  head  ;  king  posts,  eight  by  twelve  ;  queen  posts, 
eight  by  ten  ;  purloins,  eight  by  nine  ;  small  rafters,  two  and  three 
fourths  by  five  ;  braces,  three  by  seven  ;  plates,  six  by  ten  inches. 

Fig.  3  is  a  design  of  a  roof  for  a  church,  or  any  other  large  build- 
ing, in  which  it  is  desired  to  raise  a  circular  ceiling.  It  is  drawn 
from  a  scale  of  ten  feet  to  one  inch,  and  is  calculated  for  sev- 
enty feet  span.  The  perpendicular  height  of  the  ridge  is  equal  to 
one  third  of  the  base  line  of  the  roof.  It  will  be  unsafe  to  lower 
the  ridge  when  the  recess  up  into  the  roof  is  as  great  as  in  this 
example. 


CARPENTRY.  79 

A  shows  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  tie  beams  and  king  post. 
The  tie  beams  are  locked  into  each  other,  so  that  the  outsides  of  each 
are  in  the  same  plane.  The  king  post  is  to  be  made  in  two  parts, 
and  a  space  cut  away  in  each  half,  as  shown  in  B,  so  as  just  to 
admit  the  tie  beams,  when  locked  together,  to  pass  through  them. 
In  this  kind  of  roof,  the  strain  on  the  tie  beam  is  very  great ;  it 
will  therefore  be  necessary  to  make  them  eight  by  fifteen  inches, 
and  each  half  of  the  king  post  eight  by  fourteen  inches,  so  that  when 
they  are  bolted  together,  the  king  post  will  be  fourteen  inches 
wide  and  sixteen  inches  thick.  It  will  then  admit  the  tie  beam  to 
pass  through  it,  and  leave  four  by  fourteen  inches  of  solid  wood  on 
each  side.  Diminish  it  in  thickness  and  in  straight  lines  from  the 
foot  of  the  braces  upwards  to  the  head  and  thickness  of  the  princi- 
pal rafters. 

C  shows  the  method  of  connecting  the  tie  beam  and  that  of  the 
principal  rafter.  The  joint  at  the  foot  of  the  rafter  should  be  made 
at  right  angles  with  its  back,  or  upper  edge.  Make  a  c  six  inches, 
cutting  five  and  a  half  of  them  out  of  the  tie  beam.  Make  the  joint 
c  rf  as  here  represented,  and  make  a  tenon  to  the  rafter  two  inches 
thick  and  two  and  a  half  long,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  h  e.  It 
being  of  the  utmost  importance  that  those  two  timbers  should  be 
strongly  united,  I  have  represented  at  g  f  a.n  iron  strap  or  hoop, 
which  should  be  two  inches  wide  and  three  eighths  of  an  inch  thick ; 
and,  in  addition  to  this,  there  should  be  at  least  one  good  strong  iron 
bolt.  At  i  fe  is  shown  the  method  of  connecting  the  trusses  for 
the  support  of  the  vertical  strain  on  the  rafters,  at  F  and  E.  The 
foot  of  this  truss  must  also  be  cut  at  right  angles  with  its  upper 
edge,  and  let  into  the  tie  beam  about  two  and  tliree  fourths  of  an 
inch,  and  must  be  confined  to  it  by  an  iron  hoop  one  and  a  half  inch 


go  CARPENTRY. 

wide  and  three  eighths  of  an  inch  thick.  A  bolt  will  be  necessary  at 
both  G  and  H. 

D  shows  the  method  of  fitting  the  purloins  to  both  the  principal 
and  common  rafters.  The  top  of  the  principal  rafter  is  to  be  notched 
one  inch  only,  in  order  to  receive  the  purloin ;  and  the  purloin  is  to 
be  notched,  so  as  to  be  left  four  inches  above  the  principal  rafter. 
Notch  the  common  rafters  on  the  under  side  about  two  inches. 

The  sizes  of  the  tie  beams,  principal  rafters,  and  king  posts,  have 
already  been  given.  Make  the  purloins  eight  by  ten  ;  the  king  posts, 
E  and  F,  each  eight  by  ten ;  the  braces  three  by  eight ;  the  small 
rafters  two  and  three  fourths  by  six ;  and  the  plates  seven  by  twelve 
inches.  The  principal  rafters  should  not  be  more  than  nine  feet 
from  centre  to  centre. 

PLATE   LIV. 
To  find  the  Length  and  Backing  of  Hip  Rafters. 

Let  A  B  C  D  be  the  plan  of  the  building  and  the  angles  of  the 
roof;  draw  E  A,  E  B,  E  C  and  E  D,  the  base  lines,  over  which  the 
hip  rafters  are  to  stand  ;  let  6  w  m  be  the  pitch  of  the  roof;  draw 
E  F  at  right  angles  with  E  A,  and  equal  to  o  n,  the  pitch  of  the 
roof;  then  draw  A  F,  which  is  the  length  of  the  hip  rafter;  draw 
g  k  h  at  any  distance  from  the  angle  A,  and  at  right  angles  with  A  E  ; 
make  k  i  equal  to  k  r,  or  from  k  to  the  nearest  point  of  the  top  line 
of  the  hip  rafter,  draw  g  i  and  i  h,  the  backing  of  the  hip  rafter 
required.  This  method  will  give  the  backing  of  the  hip  rafter, 
whether  the  building  be  square  or  bevelling. 

Fig.  2  is  the  plan  of  an  octagon  dome,  a  b  being  the  base  line 
of  the  given  rib.    No.  2  shows  the  curve  of  the  dome,  which  in  this  case 


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CARPENTRY.  §1 

is  half  of  a  circle  drawn  from  the  centre  a.  Draw  a  6,  cutting  the 
circle  at  6,  and  at  right  angles  with  d  b,  and  produce  it  to  a  ;  divide 
h  6  into  six  or  more  equal  parts.  Make  a  h  No.  3  parallel  and  equal 
to  a  6  No.  2,  6  c  equal  to  &  c  No.  1,  and  join  c  a.  Then  draw  or- 
dinates  from  a  b  No.  2  to  a  c  No.  3,  parallel  to  a  6,  cutting  the  circle 
in  No.  2  at  the  points  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  a  c  No.  3  at  1,  2,  3,  4,  5. 
Draw  a  6  at  right  angles  with  a  c,  also  5  5,  4  4,  3  3,  2  2,  and  1  1, 
parallel  to  a  6,  and  equal  to  1  1,  2  2,  3  3,  4  4,  5  5  and  a  6  in  No.  2, 
and  then  trace  the  curve  c  1  2  3  4  5  and  6,  which  will,  when  placed 
in  its  right  position,  correspond  with  the  given  circle. 

PLATE    LV. 

Fig.  1  shows  the  method  of  framing  floors  with  plank,  or  wide 
joists.  In  this  example,  the  joists  are  eighteen  feet  long ;  for  that 
bearing  the  common  joists  should  be  twelve  by  two  and  a  quarter 
inches,  and  the  trimmer  joists,  b  b  and  c,  twelve  by  four  and  a 
half  inches.  They  should  be  got  out  by  a  mould,  made  about 
three  quarters  of  an  inch  crowning.  The  girders,  a  and  d,  should 
each  be  twelve  inches  deep  and  seven  inches  thick.  A  shows  the 
method  of  making  the  tenons  to  the  common  joists,  and  B  those  of 
the  trimmer  joists.  B  also  shows  a  section  of  the  trimmer  when 
the  mortise  is  made  through  it.  D  shows  the  section  of  a  brick 
wall,  and  C  the  shape  of  the  ends  of  the  joists  when  they  lie  on  the 
wall,  /"and  e  show  two  courses  of  bridging.  Great  care  is  neces- 
sary in  fitting  them  between  the  joists  ;  they  ought  not  to  be  driven  in 
so  hard  as  to  crowd  either  the  wall  or  girders  out  of  their  places,  nor 
ought  they  to  be  too  loose.  They  may  be  made  of  boards,  but  they 
should  be  as  wide  as  the  joists,  and  the  ends  cut  so  as  to  fit  the 
21 


82  CARPENTRY. 

sides  of  the  joists  in  the  most  perfect  manner.  The  expense  of  this 
kind  of  floor  is  about  one  third  less  than  that  of  any  other  kind,  and 
it  certainly  is  more  equal  in  its  strength  than  is  the  timber  and  joist 
floor.  When  a  good  ceiling  is  required,  and  the  joists  are  over  fifteen 
feet  in  length,  it  is  advisable  to  fur  them  vi^ith  strips  of  boards  of  two 
and  a  half  or  three  inches  wide.  It  appears,  by  an  experiment  made 
by  Professor  Robinson,  that  the  saving  of  timber  is  considerably  more 
than  one  third.  The  experiment  is  thus  related  :  Two  models  were 
made  of  eighteen  inches  square,  one  framed  with  girders,  binding, 
bridging  and  ceiling  joists,  and  the  other  with  single  joists,  containing 
the  same  quantity  of  timber  as  the  girders  alone  of  the  framed  floor. 
They  were  both  put  into  wooden  trunks,  of  eighteen  inches  square, 
resting  on  projections  within  the  trunks.  Small  shot  were  gradually 
poured  over  each  ;  the  framed  floor  broke  down  with  three  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  pounds,  and  the  single  joisted  floor  with  four  hun- 
dred and  eighty-seven  pounds. 

Fig.  2  is  a  design  for  a  truss,  proper  for  the  support  of  the  front 
of  a  gallery  in  a  church,  or  any  other  place  where  the  bearing  re- 
quired is  so  large  that  a  single  timber  is  not  suflicient  to  support  the 
weight  which  is  to  be  placed  thereon.  A  and  B  show  two  difterent 
methods  for  scarfing  timbers,  and  C  represents  a  mortise  and  tenon 
proper  for  connecting  large  timbers  ;  the  thickness  of  the  tenon  may 
generally  be  about  one  sixth  of  the  whole  depth  of  the  timber  on 
which  it  is  made. 

PLATE  LVI. 

Fig.  1  is  an  elevation  of  a  trussed  partition,  in  which  it  is  conve- 
nient to  place  two  door  ways  ;  and  in  that  case  it  becomes  necessary 


CARPENTRY.  33 

to  place  the  truss  over  the  doors.  The  tie  beam  and  king  posts  are 
locked  into  each  other  at  a  a. 

At  fig.  2  is  shown  the  best  methods  of  framing  the  head  of  a  princi- 
pal rafter,  and  also  of  the  braces  to  the  king  posts.  It  is  preferable, 
where  it  can  conveniently  be  done,  to  make  the  joints  of  both  at  right 
angles  with  their  working  sides,  like  a  and  c  ;  but  where  that  cannot 
be  done,  the  next  best  method  is  shown  oX  d  h.  A  represents  a  side 
view  of  the  tie  beam,  and  B  a  section  of  the  plate,  and  also  the  best 
method  of  cogging  them  together. 

Fig.  3  shows  how  to  draw  the  different  angle  brackets,  to  form  a 
cove  ceiling ;  and  by  the  same  principles  the  different  curvatures 
for  the  ribs  of  a  dome,  or  any  other  circular  roof,  may  be  drawn. 
Let  «  6  10  and  c  represent  the  angles  of  a  room  over  which  it  is 
desired  to  make  a  groin  ceiling ;  on  the  line  c  10  on  5,  and  with  the 
distance  5  c  or  5  10,  describe  the  half  or  given  circle  ;  draw  the 
diagonal  line  ch  ;  divide  the  circle  A,  from  c  around  to  10,  into  any 
number  of  parts,  as  here  into  ten ;  draw  lines  from  each  of  these 
divisions,  and  parallel  to  c  a,  cutting  c  10  and  c  h  each  at  1,  2,  3,  4, 
5,  6,  7,  8  and  9,  and  from  those  points  on  c  h  draw  lines  at 
right  angles  from  c  h,  and  also  from  the  same  points  draw  lines 
through  10  h,  and  at  right  angles  with  10  h  ;  make  the  distance  1  1, 
2  2,  3  3,  4  4,  5  5,  &c.  in  both  C  and  B,  exactly  equal  to  the  corre- 
sponding distance  I  1,  2  2,  3  3,  4  4,  5  5,  &c.  in  A,  and  through  tliose 
points  trace  the  curves  in  both  C  and  B,  which  gives  the  bracket 
required . 

Fig.  4  shows  how  to  draw  the  different  curvatures  of  the  edges 
of  boards  for  the  covering  of  a  dome.  Draw  the  vertical  line  8  g, 
and  divide  one  half  of  the  dome  into  as  many  parts  as  there  are  in- 
tended   to    be   courses    of   boards,   as   in   this   example   into    seven  ; 


84  CARPENTRY., 

through  1  and  2  draw  a  right  line,  cutting  8  ^  at^,  and  on  J  as  a 
centre,  with  the  distances  J  1  and  j  2,  describe  both  edges  of  the 
board  i,  and  through  2  and  3  draw  a  right  Une,  cutting  8  ^  at  A;  ;  on 
k,  and  with  the  distances  k  2  and  k  3,  describe  both  edges  of  the 
board  h.  Proceed  in  the  same  manner  until  the  boards  gjj",  e  and  d 
are  completed. 

General  Observations  on  Carpentry. 

The  floors  in  a  room  of  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  square  should  be 
made  crowning,  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch,  and  in  the  same 
proportion  if  the  room  is  larger.  The  curve  should  be  that  of  a 
segment  of  a  circle,  and  rise  equally  from  each  side  of  the  room  to 
the  centre.  Under  doors,  the  floor  should  be  raised  a  little,  so  that 
the  door  may  swing  freely  over  it,  without  touching.  Where  this 
precaution  is  not  attended  to,  and  the  floor  made  straight,  it  will,  by 
its  own  weight  and  that  put  upon  it,  soon  settle  below  a  straight  line, 
and,  of  course,  crack  the  plastering  beneath  it.  It  will  be  wise  to 
observe  the  same  precaution  in  all  horizontal  and  inclined  framings 
of  any  considerable  bearing. 

It  is  recommended,  in  many  practical  books  on  carpentry,  to 
make  the  mortises  in  girders,  beams  and  other  large  timbers,  near 
the  upper  side  of  the  stick :  the  reason  given  for  this  is,  that 
when  the  girder  settles,  it  tends  to  compress  that  part  above  the 
middle  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  and  proportionably  to  lengthen 
the  part  below  the  centre  ;  and  that,  if  the  tenon  be  inserted  near 
the  upper  edge,  the  compression  of  the  girder  will  press  hard  on 
each  side  of  the  tenon,  and  thus  prevent  the  girder  from  being 
weakened  by  the  mortise.     But  it  is  evident,  that  if  the  tonon  be  of 


CARPENTRY.  85 

any  tolerable  width,  its  shrinkage  will  be  greater  than  the  compres- 
sion, and  that  no  advantage,  therefore,  can  be  gained  by  the  above 
method.  As  the  centre  of  the  girder  is  less  affected  by  either  the 
compression  above  the  middle,  or  the  expansion  below  it,  the  middle 
is  the  best  place  for  the  mortise,  which  may  generally  be  made 
about  one  sixth  part  of  the  depth  of  the  girder.  Great  care  is  re- 
quired, in  making  mortises  and  tenons,  that  they  may  fit  each  other 
exactly.  The  same  care  is  also  required  in  making  all  kinds  of 
joints,  so  that  the  part  out  of  sight  may  fit  as  completely  as  that 
which  is  seen.  Double  tenons  in  house-framing  are  not  admissible. 
I  know  of  no  advantage  gained  by  them,  but,  on  the  contrary,  they 
cut  up  the  girder  too  much,  and  are  not  often  brought  up  to  so  good 
a  joint  as  single  ones ;  nor  does  the  pin  have  the  effect  to  draw  up 
the  joint ;  for  it  generally  cripples  before  it  passes  through  the  lower 
tenon. 

Joists  in  framed  floors,  purloins,  common  rafters,  &c.,  will  gain 
much  additional  strength  by  being  notched  into  their  supports,  and 
made  in  continued  lengths.  In  the  framing  of  roofs,  where  bearing 
timbers  are  not  at  right  angles  with  each  other,  the  joints  should  be 
made  a  little  open  at  the  angular  points,  as  there  will  always  be  a 
shrinkage  of  the  timber,  which  will  cause  a  small  settlement  of  the 
roof;  and  the  joints,  being  likewise  made  to  bear  on  their  angular 
points,  will  either  be  crippled,  or  indented  by  the  strain,  and  thereby, 
unless  the  above  precaution  is  taken,  cause  a  further  settlement. 

All  bolts,  nuts,  straps,  and  plates  of  iron,  when  used  either  in 
damp  situations  or  on  green  timber,  should  be  well  secured  against 
rust ;  since,  after  the  rust  has  once  fastened  upon  them,  (and  this 
visually  happens  very  soon,  unless  provided  against,)  it  will  continue 
to  eat  into  the  iron  until  its  strength  is  destroyed.  Mr.  Sweaton 
22 


95  CARPENTRY. 

recommends,  as  a  preventive  against  rust,  to  heat  the  iron  to  about 
a  blue  heat,  and  immediately  strike  over  its  surface  with  raw  linseed 
oil,  which  will  fill  up  the  pores  of  the  iron,  and  effectually  protect  it 
against  corrosion. 

In  the  directions  given  for  the  size  of  the  timbers  in  the  foregoing 
examples  for  roofs,  I  have  supposed  them  to  be  of  white  pine  :  but  if 
they  should  be  made  of  hard  pine,  the  sizes  may  be  somewhat  redu- 
ced ;  or,  if  of  oak,  a  considerable  reduction  may  be  made.  It  is  best 
to  use  hard  wood  for  the  king  posts,  and  particularly  when  the  roof  is 
of  large  dimensions  ;  for  the  tendency  of  the  strain  is  to  draw  the 
king  post  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  and  that  of  the  principal  raf- 
ters to  compress  them  in  the  direction  of  their  length.  A  great 
pressure  is  therefore  sustained  between  the  head  of  the  king  post 
and  that  of  the  principal  rafters,  which  will  cause  the  heads  of  the 
rafters  to  indent  themselves  into  the  head  of  the  king  post,  and  there- 
by cause  a  small  settlement  of  the  roof.  The  king  post  ought  to 
be  well  seasoned,  and  its  breadth  no  more  than  is  required  for  its 
connexion  with  the  head  of  the  rafters,  and  the  support  of  the  strain 
necessarily  thrown  upon  it  by  the  weight  of  the  roof;  for  a  shrink- 
age in  its  breadth  would  cause  a  small  settlement  of  the  roof 


HANDRAILING.  87 


HANDRAILING. 


PLATE   LVII. 

DESIGNS    FOR    HANDRAILS    AND    NEWELLS. 

Fig.  1  is  a  design  for  a  stair  post  or  newell,  which  is  drawn  at 
full  size.  Fig.  2,  3  and  4  are  sections  of  stair  rails,  which  are  also 
drawn  at  full  size  for  practice.  It  has  been  customary  to  lay  down 
rules  for  drawing  sections  of  handrails  composed  of  parts  of  circles 
and  straight  lines  ;  but  they  certainly  are  not  so  graceful  as  those 
here  laid  down,  which  are  composed  of  parts  of  ellipses  and  straight 
lines. 

PLATE  LVin. 

To  draw  the  Scroll  for  a  Handrail.  Divide  a  b,  the  width  of 
the  scroll,  into  nine  equal  parts ;  make  b  c  and  a  d  each  equal  to 
one  of  these  parts,  and  at  right  angles  with  a  b  ;  draw  d  c  ;  join  c  b 
and  da;  also  join  the  diagonal  line  c  a.  Drawee  perpendicular  to 
a  b,  and  at  a  distance  from  c  of  five  of  the  nine  parts  into  which  a  b 
is  divided.  Divide /"o"  into  two  equal  parts  at  h,  on  h,  with  the  dis- 
tance hf  or  h  g.  Draw  the  half  circle  f  o  g  (see  fig.  2,  on  which 
the  centres  are  drawn  on  a  large  scale)  fromy,  and  through  o  draw 
the  diagonaiyo  i  ;  also  from  g  draw  g  o  k,  cutting  o  exactly  where 
the  half  circle  J"  o  g  intersects  the  diagonal  c  a;  then  draw  g  i,  i  k, 
k  I,  I  m,  m  n,  n  p,  ]}  q,  Sec,  at  right  angles  with  each  other,  cutting 
the  diagonals  at  g  i,  i  k,  k  I,  I  m,  m  n,  n  p,  p  q,  &c.  Then,  with  the 
distance  fc,  and  ony,  draw  the  quarter  of  a  circle  c  e ;  on  g,  and 


88  HANDRAILING. 

with  the  distance  g  e,  draw  e  a  ;  on  i,  and  with  the  distance  i  a, 
draw  a  r ;  and  so  on,  until  you  have  completed  the  outside  circle, 
drawing  one  quarter  of  the  circle  from  each  centre.  The  inside 
circle  is  drawn  from  the  same  centres  as  the  outside. 

V  V  show  where  to  place  the  face  of  the  two  first  risers.  The 
dotted  line,  e  a  d  r  I  s,  represents  the  extreme  projection  of  the 
nosing  around  the  curtail  step,  and  z  z  the  extreme  projection  of  the 
nosing  to  the  second  step.  The  lines  w  x,  which  are  drawn  from  the 
same  centres  as  the  rail,  show  where  to  place  the  balusters. 

Fig.  3  represents  the  method  of  making  the  curtail  step  ;  a  a  a 
represents  the  riser  glued  on  to  the  block  ;  h  b,  keys  for  keying  up 
the  riser  around  the  curtail  step,  when  glued  on  ;  c,  a  block  to  be 
glued  on  to  both  riser  and  step,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  them  firm 
in  their  place. 

To  draw  the  Face  Mould,  for  Squaring  the  twisted  part  of 
the  Scroll.  Fig.  4  is  a  plan  of  the  rail,  in  all  respects  like  fig.  1. 
a  b  c  No.  2  is  the  pitch  board,  No.  3  the  face  mould.  Draw  d  h 
through  the  centre  of  the  scroll,  and  parallel  to  a  b ;  draw  a  d  at 
right  angles  with  a  b,  and  h  h  h  at  right  angles  with  a  b,  cutting 
the  upper  edge  of  the  pitch  board  at  h ;  draw  h  h  No.  3  at  right 
angles  with  a  c,  the  upper  edge  of  the  pitch  board,  and  a  d  also  at 
right  angles  with  a  c.  Make  a  d  and  h  h  No.  3  each  equal  to  a  c? 
and  h  h  No.  1  ;  join  d  h  No.  3.  Draw  ordinates  through  No.  1  at 
e  e  e,fff,  and  g  g  g,  cutting  the  upper  edge  of  the  pitch  board  at 
efg,  and  from  these  points  draw  ordinates  at  right  angles  with  a  c 
across  the  face  mould,  cutting  dh  at  efg.  Then,  on  the  scroll  No. 
1,  divide  d  e,fg  and  g  h  each  into  any  number  of  parts,  either  equal 
or  unequal ;  draw  ordinates  through  each  one  of  these  divisions,  12  3, 


ri. 


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I'[   .-.s 


HANDRAILING.  89 

456  7,  89  10  11,  parallel  to  those  before  drawn,  cutting  the  upper 
edge  of  the  pitch  board  at  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  and  from 
those  points,  and  at  right  angles  with  the  upper  edge  of  the  pitch 
board  a  c,  draw  ordinates  across  the  face  mould,  cutting  d  /i  at  1,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11. 

From  d  h  No.  1  take  the  distance  1  1,  and  set  it  off  from  1  to  1  on 
dh  ISo.  S;  then  take  2  2,  3  3,  e  c,  //  4  4,  5  5,  6  6,  &c.,  on  No.  1, 
and  set  them  off  from  d  h  No.  3,  2  to  2,  3  to  3,  e  to  e,ftof,  4  to  4, 
5  to  5,  6  to  6,  &c.  Proceed  in  the  same  manner  to  take  from  d  h 
No.  1  all  the  distances  on  both  inside  and  outside  of  the  scroll,  and 
set  them  off  both  ways  on  all  the  corresponding  ordinates  from  d  h 
No.  3  ;  then  trace  the  curve  through  all  these  points,  and  it  will 
complete  the  plan  of  the  face  mould. 

To  draiD  the  Falling  Mould.  Fig.  5,  a  b  c,  represents  the  pitch 
board.  Divide  h  c,  its  height,  into  six  parts,  to  give  the  level  of  the 
scroll ;  the  distance  b  f  is  from  the  face  of  the  riser  to  the  beginning 
of  the. twist,  and  the  distance  from  y  to  d  is  equal  to  the  stretchout  of 
the  scroll,  from  c,  the  beginning  of  the  twist,  to  «,  on  fig.  1,  each 
being  any  part  taken  at  discretion  more  than  the  first  quarter  of  the 
scroll ;  divide  e  g,  the  rake  of  the  pitch  board,  and  g  d,  the  level  of 
the  rail,  each  into^he  same  number  of  equal  parts,  and,  by  intersect- 
ing lines,  complete  the  top  edge  of  the  mould,  and  make  the  under 
edge  parallel  thereto. 
23 


90  HANDRAILING. 

PLATE  LIX. 
RECIPROCAL    SPIRALS    AND    SCROLLS. 

To  draw  the  Reciprocal  Spiral  and  Scroll.  Suppose  a  circle 
drawn  from  the  centre  of  the  intended  spiral,  and  divided  into  eight 
equal  parts.  Draw  lines  through  the  centre  of  the  spiral,  cutting- 
each  of  these  eight  parts  on  the  supposed  circle,  of  a  sufficient 
length  to  intersect  the  curve  of  the  scroll,  as  represented  on  fig.  1, 
at  P,  K,  L,  R,  S,  T,  U,  V ;  and  suppose  the  length  of  the  ordinate 
O  P  to  be  given,  make  B  A  in  fig.  2  equal  to  O  P  fig.  1,  and 
draw  E  D  at  any  angle  from  A  B ;  the  number  of  revolutions 
intended  to  be  made  in  the  scroll  will  determine  the  number  of 
parts  into  which  B  D  is  to  be  divided.  If  one  revolution  is  wanted, 
it  will  require  eight  parts  ;  if  one  and  a  half,  twelve  parts  ;  if  two, 
sixteen  parts  ;  and  so  on.  Make  E  B  and  C  A  each  equal  to  B  1  ; 
from  C  as  a  centre  draw  C  1,  C  2,  C  3,  C  4,  &c.,  cutting  B  A  at 
a,  b,  c,  d,  &c.  It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  B  A  is  equal  to  O  P 
fig.  1.  Make  O  K  equal  to  A  a  fig.  2,  and  O  L  fig.  1  equal  to  A  6 
fig.  2 ;  make  O  R  fig.  1  equal  to  A  c  fig.  2 ;  also  make  O  S,  O  T, 
O  U  and  O  V,  in  fig.  1,  each  respectively  equal  to  A  d,  A  e,  Af, 
and  A  g,  in  fig.  2,  &c.,  and  draw  the  curve  through  P,  K,  L,  R,  S, 
T,  U,  V,  &c.,  which  will  be  the  spiral  required.  The  scroll,  fig.  3, 
is  drawn  from  the  scale  F  G,  fig.  2,  the  distance  G  J  being  equal  to 
that  of  o  m,  fig.  3 ;  G  F,  fig  2,  being  equal  to  o  a,  fig.  3  ;  and 
the  distances  o  b,  o  c,  o  d  and  o  e  are  respectively  equal  to  the  dis- 
tances G  1,  G  2,  G  3,  G  4,  &c.  The  scroll  may  be  drawn  by 
centres,  as  follows  :  with  the  distance  o  a,  and  on  f,  draw  k  a  b  ; 
with  the  distance  o  b,  and  on  g,  draw  be;  with  the  distance  o  c, 
and  on  h,  draw  c  d  ;   with  the  distance  o  d,  and  on  i,  draw  d.  e,  &c. 


HANDRAIUNG.  91 

It  will  be  perceived  that  this  scroll  is  not  so  open  as  that  of  fig.  1  : 
the  reason  is  obvious ;  the  lines  A  B  and  F  G  are  not  parallel ; 
they  make  an  angle  of  seventeen  degrees,  and  the  divisions  on  F  G 
are  much  nearer  equal  than  those  on  B  A.  It  is  therefore  evident, 
that  the  nearer  equal  the  divisions  are,  the  closer  will  be  the  scroll, 
as  is  more  plainly  shown  by  the  scroll  fig.  4,  the  divisions  of  which 
are  taken  from  the  scale  H  I,  which  makes  an  angle  with  A  B  of 
forty-five  degrees.  As  this  spiral  can  easily  be  made  close,  or  to 
expand  at  pleasure,  and  as  its  curve  is  more  graceful  than  any  of 
those  which  are  drawn  by  centres,  it  will  be  found  exceedingly  useful 
in  stair  building',  and  it  can  be  used  with  success  for  many  other 
architectural  purposes. 

PLATE   LX. 

TO  FIND  THE  MOULDS  FOR   MAKING  STAIR  RAILS  ON  A  SEMICIRCULAR 

PLAN,  WITH  EIGHT  WINDERS. 

To  draw  the  Falling  Mould,  Fig.  1.  First  draw  the  plan  of  the 
rail  and  winders  as  in  fig.  2 ;  then  draw  the  line  d  8  equal  to  the 
height  of  all  the  winders,  eight  in  this  example  ;  make  d  c  and  8  c 
each  at  right  angles  with  d  8,  and  d  e  equal  to  the  development  of 
E  D,  the  quadrantal  part  of  the  rail ;  in  fig.  2  also  make  8  c  equal 
to  the  development  of  the  quadrantal  part  of  the  rail  D  8.  Make  e  k 
and  h  i  each  equal  to  the  rise  of  one  step,  and  parallel  to  c?  8  ;  make 
k  g  equal  to  the  tread  of  one  step,  and  parallel  to  d  f. 

In  fig.  1  join  g  e,  e  c  and  c  i,  which  is  the  central  line  of  the 
straight  part  of  the  rail ;  then  set  off  on  each  side  about  an  incli 
for  the  depth  of  the  rail,  which  is  generally  about  two  inches, 
from  e,-  the  point  where  you  intend  to  have  the   straight   and  curved 


92  HANDRAILING. 

parts  of  the  rail  join,  as  at  e  o  and  e  p  (see  fig.  8).  Divide  e  o  and 
e  p  each  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts,  as  here  into  six. 
Through  each  of  these  divisions  draw  lines  intersecting  each  other, 
and  these  lines  will  produce  the  curve  required  for  finishing  the 
falling  mould. 

Produce  d  e  m.  fig.  1  to  f,  and  make  ef  equal  to  the  straight  part 
of  the  rail  E  F;  drawl's  at  right  angles  with  d  f,  cutting  the  top 
of  the  rail  at«;  draw  s  t  parallel  and  equal  to  fd.  Then  make  c  I 
equal  to  the  straight  part  of  the  rail,  8  9,  on  fig.  2  ;  draw  I  m  at  right 
angles  with  8  h,  cutting  the  top  of  the  rail  at  m,  and  m  n  parallel 
and  equal  to  8  1;  then  join  n  8  and  s  4,  and  m,  will  show  where  the 
rail  is  to  be  joined. 

To  draw  the  Face  Mould.  Take  from  the  plan  of  the  rail  on  fig. 
2,  D  E  B  C,  the  quadrantal  part,  and  E  F  A  B,  the  straight  part, 
of  the  rail,  and  transfer  them  to  fig.  3  No.  2 ;  draw  the  chord  line 
A  C,  produced  to  1  and  5  ;  draw  5  D  H.  5,  C  o  ii  c  and  1  F  G,  at 
right  angles  with  the  chord  line  A  C,  and  G  H  parallel  to  the  chord  line 
A  C.  Then  take  the  distance  from  t  to  ti  in  fig.  1,  and  set  it  from  u 
on  G  H,  fig.  3,  to  c ;  draw  G  c  produced  to  5  ;  then  draw  from  the 
chord  line  A  C  No.  2,  6  J  u  t  6,  4  I  m  s  4,  S  B  I  r  S,  2  e  E  q  2  and 
A  k  p  a ;  and  at  right  angles  with  G  5  draw  G  F,  a  A;,  2  E,  3  /,  4  m, 
6  n,  c  o  and  5  D.  Transfer  the  distances  5  D  in  No.  2  to  5  D  in 
No.  1,  from  C  o  No.  2  to  C  o  No.  1,  from  6  n  to  6  n,  from  4  m  to  4  m, 
from  3  /  to  3  /,  from  2  E  to  2  E,  from  A  k  to  a  k,  and  from  1  F  to 
G  F  ;  also  from  6  J  to  6  j,  from  4  I  to  4  i,  from  3  B  to  3  b,  and  from 
2  c  to  2  e;  then  trace  the  curves  F  k  F,  I  tn  n  o  D  and  cjih.  The 
lines  h  e  a  and  F  A;  E  are  straight,  and  E  6  shows  where  the  straight 
and  circular  parts  of  the  rail  join. 


HANDRAILING.  93 

Fig.  4  shows  the  face  mould  for  the  upper  quarter  part  of  the  rail, 
which,  I  think,  will  be  clearly  understood  without  further  explanation. 
The  height  of  the  face  mould  is  taken  from  w  to  w  on  fig.  1,  and  ap- 
plied to  V  n  on  fig.  4. 

Fig.  7  shows  the  edge  of  the  plank  on  which  the  face  mould  fig. 
3  is  to  be  applied  ;  and  fig.  6  that  on  which  the  face  mould  fig.  4  is 
to  be  applied.  The  angle  c  a  b,  in  fig.  7,  must  be  exactly  equal 
to  the  angle  H  5  G,  in  fig.  3,  No.  1  ;  and  the  angle  c  a  b,  in  fig.  6, 
to  the  angle  v  n  u,  in  fig.  4.  The  points  of  the  face  mould  at  c  and 
a  must  be  applied  exactly  to  those  at  a  and  c  on  the  upper  side  of 
the  plank  fig.  7,  and  also  to  the  points  b  and  d  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  plank. 

PLATE  LXI. 

TO    FIND    THE    MOULDS    FOR    A    STAIR    RAIL   WITH    A    SEMICIRCLE    OF 

EIGHT    WINDERS. 

Let  fig.  1  be  the  plan  of  the  rail,  on  which  the  risers  are  marked 
I,  2,  3,  a,  5,  6,  7,  8,  and  let  A  D  E  H  T  I  No.  2  be  the  quadrantal 
part  of  the  rail,  and  exactly  equal  to  e  a  h  i  in  fig.  1  ;  and  let 
E  F  G  H,  the  straight  part  of  the  rail  in  fig.  3  No.  2,  be  equal  to 
cfg  h  in  fig.  1,  I  being  the  upper  and  F  the  lower  resting  points  ; 
make  D,  the  middle  resting  point,  equal  to  one  half  of  the  stretch- 
out of  the  rail  from  A  to  F,  and  draw  I  D.  In  the  figure  of  the 
falling  mould,  which  has  been  described  in  page  91,  set  up  on  the 
line  a  b  the  height  of  each  of  the  eight  risers  ;  draw  a  e  at  right 
angles  with  a  b,  and  equal  to  the  stretchout  of  the  rail  from  A  to  E. 
Produce  a  e  tof,  and  make  ef  equal  to  E  F,  the  straight  part  of 
the  rail.  Draw  f  I  parallel  to  a  b,  cutting  the  top  of  the  falling 
24 


94  HANDRAILING. 

mould  at  /;  draw  li  parallel  and  equal  tof  a;  make  i  d  equal  to 
the  development  of  A  D,  and  ef  equal  to  E  F.  On  a  f  make  a  d 
equal  to  I  D  ;  draw  d  m  parallel  to  a  b,  cutting  the  upper  side  of 
the  falling  mould  at  m,  and  draw  m  n  at  right  angles  with  a  b,  cut- 
ting a  b  at  n.  Draw  d  r  parallel  to  a  b,  cutting  m  w  at  r,  and  from 
the  point  o,  on  the  upper  side  of  the  falling  mould,  and  through  r, 
draw  o  q,  cutting  I  i  at  q  ;  make  I  Q,  equal  to  i  q  ;  then  draw  Q,  F, 
touching  the  point  of  the  rail  at  F,  and  produce  it  to  K  ;  draw  K  L 
at  right  angles  with  Q,  K,  and  B  I  Z  Z  parallel  to  Q  K  ;  make  Z  Z 
equal  to  i  o  in  fig.  2.  Draw  K  Z,  and  produce  it  to  L,  and  draw 
ALL;  also  draw  other  ordinates  from  the  outside  of  the  rail,  cut- 
ting K  L  at  Y  6,  c,  U,  G,  and  from  these  points,  and  also  from  L,  Z 
and  K,  draw  ordinates  at  right  angles  with  K  L,  cutting  the  convex 
side  of  the  face  mould  at  A,  B,  C,  b,  c,  o,  e,  E,  F ;  then  find  the 
points  on  the  concave  side  of  the  face  mould,  and  trace  the  curves  as 
directed  in  page  92. 

Hoic  to  apply  the  Face  Mould  on  each  Side  of  the  Plank,  so  that, 
when  the  Wood  is  cvt  away,  the  Curved  Surfaces  may  stand  per- 
pendicular to  the  Plan.  In  fig,  5,  let  a  b  c  d  efg  be  the  figure  of 
the  face  mould,  placed  in  the  proper  position  to  the  pitch  line  g  i. 
In  fig.  6,  let  Y  represent  the  edge,  X  the  upper  side,  and  Z  the  under 
side  of  the  plank  from  which  the  rail  is  to  be  made  ;  make  the  angle 
^  K  L  equal  to  the  angle  L  L  K.  In  fig.  3,  place  the  points  of  the 
face  mould  at  g  and  i  on  X,  and  mark  off  the  plank  by  the  edges  of 
the  mould.  Draw  L  ^  at  right  angles  with  the  arris  of  the  plank 
g  i ;  then  make  the  angle  L  ^  K  on  Z  equal  to  the  angle  g  e  i  fig.  5. 
And  in  fig.  6  make  L  g  equal  to  ^  K  ;  draw  g  e  parallel  to  the  lower 
arris  of  the  plank,  and  place  the  points  of  the  face  mould  at  g  and  e, 
and  mark  by  both  of  its  edges. 


STAIRS— CHURCHES.  95 


STAIRS, 


PLATE   LXII. 

On  this  plate  are  a  plan  and  elevation  of  a  circular  staircase, 
drawn  from  a  scale  of  one  inch  to  a  foot.  By  an  inspection  of  the 
plate,  the  method  of  drawing  the  elevation  of  a  circular  staircase  will 
be  clearly  understood. 


CHURCHES 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  HOUSES  ERECTED  FOR  PUBLIC  WORSHIP. 

Their  character  should  harmonize  particularly  with  the  purpose 
for  which  they  are  designed ;  for  the  same  proportions  which  would 
be  beautiful  in  a  room  of  a  light  or  gay  description,  would  be  a  de- 
fect in  one  of  a  solemn  or  devotional  character.  A  building  erected 
for  public  worship  should  therefore  be  so  contrived  as  to  produce 
in  the  beholder  serious  and  devotional  feelings.  This  effect  is  ob- 
tained by  composing  the  building,  generally,  of  large,  bold,  angular 
outlines,  by  continuing  the  entablatures  and  cornices  unbroken  over 
the  columns  and  pilasters,  and  giving  all  the  decorations,  either  of 
mouldings  or  sculpture,  a  large  and  grave  appearance  ;  excluding 
all  ornaments  composed  of  slender,  curved,  or  winding  outlines, 
which  are  expressive  of  lightness  and  gayety.     The  windows  should 


96  CHURCHES. 

be  large,  and  so  constructed  as  to  admit  the  air  to  circulate  freely 
throughout  the  house,  without  producing  a  glare  of  light ;  for  a  glare 
of  light,  and  bright  and  gay  colors,  are  opposed  to  solemnity  in  a 
house  of  worship.  Ceilings  are  most  appropriate  when  so  arranged 
as  to  cause  the  greatest  quantity  of  sound  ;  and,  if  decorated  at  all, 
when  divided  into  compartments,  and  ornamented  by  deep-sunk 
panels,  surrounded  by  large  plain  fillets,  or  mouldings. 

When  columns  are  employed  for  the  support  of  a  gallery,  they 
should  be  surmounted  by  an  entablature,  and  the  general  proportions 
of  the  pedestal  given  to  that  part  of  the  front  of  the  gallery,  above 
the  entablature  ;  and,  as  it  is  not  usually  convenient  to  make  the 
plinth  either  very  high  or  thick,  it  will  be  necessary  to  leave  the  upper 
edge  square,  or  a  little  sloping.  The  face  of  the  wainscot  must  be 
in  a  vertical  line  with  the  frieze  of  the  entablature,  and  the  panels 
deeply  sunk,  and  surrounded  by  mouldings  strongly  marked,  since,  in 
the  cornice,  slender  mouldings,  viewed  at  the  distance  they  must 
necessarily  be,  would  appear  indistinct ;  it  will  therefore  be  advisable 
to  compose  the  cornice  of  a  few  bold  parts. 

The  pulpit  ought  to  partake  of  the  character  of  the  building  in 
which  it  is  erected.  It  may  with  propriety  be  made  of  mahogany, 
when  pine  is  used  for  the  finish  of  the  other  parts  of  the  building  ; 
but  the  style  of  architecture,  and  decorations,  must  correspond 
with  those  of  the  house.  Its  height  from  the  floor  should  be  about 
seven  feet,  and  the  platform  on  which  it  stands  should  be  raised  at 
least  two  steps  from  the  floor  of  the  aisles,  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
the  congregation  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the  ordinances  adminis- 
tered there.  It  has  been  a  common  practice  to  make  two  stair 
cases  to  a  pulpit  ;  a  custom  which  cannot  be  justified  by  the  rule 
of  proportioning  the  means  to  the  end,  or  any  other,  except  that  of 


I'1,..M) 


V.         li  ' 


ri,.<i(j 


/•^^ 


l'l..c.l  . 


3  1j\  2  :i;  f! 


I' 1, .<■■•>. 


CHURCHES.  g^ 

uniformity.  There  does  indeed  seem  to  be  a  great  impropriety  in 
erecting  two  stair  cases,  where  only  one  person  is  to  ascend,  and  who 
cannot,  of  course,  use  but  one  at  the  same  time  ;  but  it  is  difficult  to 
preserve  the  necessary  uniformity  without  two  stair  cases  ;  and  it 
will  therefore  be  advisable  to  construct  two,  yet  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  make  the  least  possible  show,  that  they  may  appear  as  small  in  the 
composition  as  possible. 


PLATE  LXIII. 

PULPIT. 


On   Plate  LXIII.  is  a  plan  and   elevation  of  a  pulpit,  drawn  from 
a  scale  of  one  half  an  inch  to  a  foot.     Its  height  is  seven   feet  above 
the  platform  on  which  it  is  to  be  placed.     One  end   of  the    steps   of 
each  flight  of  stairs  finishes  against  a  buttress  ;  this  buttress  is  form- 
ed like  the   pilasters,  with  the   exception  of  the   cap,  which   extends 
back   to   the   wall  a  a,  and  by  the  wall,  in  a  sloping  direction,  con- 
forms to  the  inchnation  of  the  steps,  until  it  butts   against  the  pilas- 
ters at  h  b.     The   dotted   line   on  the  plan,  at  c,  represents   the   pro- 
jection  of  the   cornice,  the   bedmould   and    corona  of  which   profile 
agamst  the  pulpit  on  each  side  of  both  doors  at  d  d  d  d.     The  crown 
moulding    with   its    fillets   continues   across    the     doors,    which    are 
mtended  to  be  hung  on  the  front  side  of  the  pulpit,  e  e,  and  to  open 
inwards. 

PLATE  LXIV. 

On  this  plate   are  designs   for  the   entablature,  pilasters  and   cap- 
pmg,  drawn  at  one  third  of  the  full  size.     Divide   the  entire   height 
25  ® 


98  CHURCHES. 

into  twenty-one  equal  parts  ;  give  two  to  the  diameter  of  the  pilaster, 
two  to  the  phnth,  four  to  the  height  of  the  entablature,  and  fifteen  to 
the  height  of  the  pilaster.  The  pilasters  in  this  case  are  eight  inches 
in  diameter ;  divide  the  diameter  into  forty  equal  parts,  and  by  that 
scale  draw  all  the  mouldings. 

Fig.  2  is  a  section  of  the  pilaster  at  an  external  angle.  Fig.  3  is 
a  design  for  the  capping  to  the  buttress.  Fig.  4  represents  a  section 
of  the  moulding  for  the  panelhng  and  a  part  of  the  panel,  and 
also  a  part  of  the  stile,  at  full  size  for  practice.  The  guiloche  in  the 
panel  is  not  to  project  beyond  a  vertical  line  of  the  frieze.  In  fig.  1, 
a  should  project  four  parts  and  two  thirds  from  h,  c  should  project 
three  parts  from  a,  and  d  should  project  three  parts  from  e. 


GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ORDERS.  99 


THE  GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ORDERS 


Remarks  on  these  Orders,  their  Application  and  Fitness. 

It  is  possible  that  many  ingenious  builders,  who  have,  for  a  long 
time,  rigidly  adhered  to  the  Roman  system  of  the  orders,  particularly 
those  who  live  at  a  distance  from  any  of  our  large  cities,  and  have 
not  had  opportunities  for  frequently  visiting  them,  so  as  to  witness 
with  what  a  rapid  progress  the  Grecian  system  has  advanced  beyond 
the  Roman  within  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years,  may  regard  the 
general  recommendation  of  the  Grecian  system  of  the  orders  as  a 
whim  of  my  own,  and,  without  taking  the  trouble  to  give  it  a  fair 
trial,  reject  it  as  an  innovation  on  their  former  practice.  Fearing 
this,  and  desiring  to  extend  as  far  as  possible  the  usefulness  of  the 
Grecian  orders  with  all  the  details,  I  have  thought  it  best  to  give  the 
opinions  and  reasoning,  on  the  Grecian  and  Roman  orders,  of  Mr. 
James  Elms,  a  distinguished  English  architect,  who,  in  addition  to  a 
long  and  extensive  practice,  has  had  the  advantage  of  visiting  the 
most  celebrated  temples,  both  in  Greece  and  Rome. 

The  Greek  architects  had  no  difficulties  to  contend  with,  m  pro- 
portioning temples.  According  to  Vitruvius,  after  the  size  of  the 
front  and  number  of  columns  have  been  determined  upon,  if  six 
columns  are  in  front,  the  whole  front  is  to  be  divided  into  twenty- 
four  and  a  half  equal  parts,  without   reckoning  the  projection  of  the 


100  GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ORDERS. 

bases  of"  the  two  outer  columns  ;  the  diameter  of  the  column  to  be 
made  equal  to  one  of  those  parts,  and  the  height  equal  to  eight  and 
a  half  diameters.  He  means,  I  suppose,  to  employ  the  Ionic  order, 
as  the  Greeks  always,  when  columns  were  employed  on  the  flanks 
of  their  temples,  used  double  the  number,  and  one  more,  than  they 
did  on  the  front,  counting  the  angular  columns  twice  ;  so  that,  if  six 
columns  were  employed  in  front,  there  would  be  thirteen  along  each 
of  the  sides.  Where  columns  were  not  used  on  the  flanks,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  length  bore  the  same  proportion  to  the  breadth  of 
the  building,  as  when  they  were  used ;  and  as  they  had  not,  as  we 
have,  to  calculate  for  two  or  three  stories  in  height,  with  windows 
in  each  to  accommodate  different  sized  rooms,  stair  cases,  &c.,  we 
can  suppose,  that  when  the  Doric  order,  in  its  full  proportions,  was 
employed  on  buildings  of  the  size  of  the  temple  of  Minerva  at 
Athens,  which  was  one  hundred  feet  in  breadth,  and  two  hundred 
and  twenty-five  in  length,  with  eight  Doric  columns  on  each  front, 
and  seventeen  on  each  side,  measuring  six  feet  one  inch  in  diame- 
ter, and,  including  capital,  thirty-four  feet  two  inches  in  height ;  the 
entrance  doors  on  each  front  being  twelve  feet  six  inches  in 
breadth,  and  twenty-eight  feet  eight  inches  in  height ;  a  building, 
moreover,  constructed  of  the  finest  marble,  and  displaying  the  nicest 
workmanship  ;  we  may  suppose,  I  say,  in  this  case,  that  the  pro- 
portions of  this  building,  on  so  large  a  scale,  would  produce  effects 
not  to  be  surpassed  by  any  alterations  which  could  have  been  made 
in  them. 

But  we  have  now  to  proportion  buildings  of  a  totally  different 
character,  and  under  much  more  embarrassing  circumstances.  If 
for  public  use,  they  are  chiefly  churches,  buildings  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  our  courts  of  justice,  or  banks. 


GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ORDERS.  IQ] 

If  a  church  is  to  be  erected,  the  committee,  chosen  for  that  pur- 
pose, will  take  care  to  instruct  the  architect  not  to  make  the  building 
larger  than  is  necessary  for  seating  all  their  congregation.  The 
architect  is  therefore  under  the  necessity  of  making  a  gallery  and  two 
tiers  of  windows,  unless,  by  making  one  tier  of  windows,  he  submits 
to  the  awkward  appearance  of  the  gallery  crossing  them.  The  in- 
creased size,  and  the  additional  expense,  which  would  accrue  by  erect- 
ing porticos  each  side  of  the  building,  would  forbid  such  an  attempt ; 
and  the  architect  is  confined  to  the  front  and  rear  of  the  house,  where 
he  may,  indeed,  show  his  taste  and  skill,  by  embellishing  them  with 
columns  and  entablatures,  of  the  Greek  proportions.  The  massive 
Doric  may  there  often  have  its  full  proportions. 

In  a  court  house,  there  are  generally  two  tiers  of  windows,  and  two 
stories — circumstances  against  adopting  all  the  proportions  of  the 
Grecian  temple  ;  nevertheless,  the  architect  may  so  construct  such  a 
building  that  it  will  produce  a  chaste  and  pleasing  effect. 

Banks,  being  usually  built  in  our  cities,  and  situated  in  the  most 
crowded  and  business  part  of  them,  seldom  show  more  than  the  front 
on  the  street,  and,  on  account  of  the  value  of  the  land  on  which  they 
are  located,  are  often  made  three  stories  in  height.  This  would 
forbid  the  front  being  embellished  with  columns,  supporting  a  pedi- 
ment, whose  roof  is  in  the  same  plane  with  the  roof  of  the  building  ; 
but  if  it  should  be  only  two  stories  in  height,  and  completely  insula- 
ted, then  an  opportunity  is  offered  to  the  architect  to  decorate  it  with 
the  Grecian  orders  and  proportions. 

All  the   Grecian   buildings  which   have  been  accurately  measured 
and  transmitted  to  us,  were  erected  for  public  purposes.     Time  has 
swept  from  us  every  vestige  of  their  private  houses,  and  it  is   impos- 
sible to  ascertain,  at  the  present  day,  whether   or  not  the    Grecian 
26 


102  GRECIAN  AND  ROxMAN  ORDERS. 

architects  gave  the  same  proportions  to  the  Doric  order,  when  used 
in  their  private  dwellings,  as  when  used  in  their  temples.  It  is  prob- 
able, however,  that  they  were  much  lighter  in  the  former  case. 

I  see  no  propriety  in  making  a  Doric  column,  according  to  the 
Greek  proportions,  from  four  to  six  and  a  half  diameters,  when  used 
in  dwelling  houses. 

Take  the  case  of  a  country  house,  constructed  of  wood,  the  front 
of  which  it  is  desired  to  decorate  with  a  portico  in  the  Grecian  style. 
A  house  having  such  an  embellishment  would  not  be  less  than  twenty- 
six  feet  in  height.  If  it  is  to  be  of  the  Doric  order,  the  example  of 
the  temple  of  Corinth  would  make  the  column  four  feet  four  inches 
in  diameter,*  and  the  entablature  eight  feet  eight  inches  in  height. 
No  one  could  tolerate  this  proportion,  since  it  would  require  the  thick- 
ness of  the  column,  at  its  base,  to  exceed  the  breadth  of  the  doors 
and  windows,  and  the  entablature  would  cover  one  third  of  the  front 
of  the  house. 

Again,  let  us  take  the  example  of  the  portico  of  Philip,  king  of 
Macedon,  which  is  one  of  the  lightest  of  all  the  Grecian  Dorics.  By 
this  example,  the  column  would  be  three  feet  three  quarters  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  and  the  entablature  six  feet  one  and  a  half  inch  in 
height ;  which  is  still  much  too  large,  especially  if  the  columns  are 
made  of  wood,  as  ours  usually  are. 

Let  us  now  take  an  example  from  the  theatre  of  Marcellus,  at 
Rome.  This  would  make  the  column  two  feet  nine  inches  in  diame- 
ter, and  the  entablature  five  feet  six  inches  in  height. 

No  one,  I  think,  will  say  that  this  last  example  is  too  light.  If 
any  thing  different  is  preferable,  it  is  to  make  the  column  two  feet 
six  inches.     I  therefore   repeat   what  I  have   before   said,   that   the 

*  I  leave  out  the  fractional  parts. 


GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ORDERS.  103 

general  proportions  of  the  Roman  Doric  orders  come  nearer  to  our 
practice  in  private  buildings  than  the  Grecian  proportions.  The 
Greeks  and  Romans  did  not  differ  essentially  in  their  general  propor- 
tions of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders. 

It  will  be  seen,  by  turning  to  page  16,  on  which  is  a  table  of  the 
proportions  of  all  the  Grecian  Dorics  which  have  been  accurately 
measured,  that  the  column  in  the  temple  of  Corinth  is  four  diame- 
ters and  four  minutes  in  height,  and  the  column  in  the  portico  of 
Philip,  six  diameters  thirty-two  and  a  half  minutes  in  height ;  makmg 
a  difference  of  two  diameters  twenty-eight  and  a  half  minutes  in  the 
height  of  the  columns  of  these  two  examples.  The  capitals,  like- 
wise, of  these  examples,  differ  as  widely  as  the  columns  ;  that  in  the 
temple  of  Corinth  being  in  height  twenty-four  and  a  quarter 
minutes,  and  projecting  sixteen  minutes,  while  that  of  the  portico  of 
PhiUp  is  in  height  fourteen  and  one  third  minutes,  and  projects  six 
and  a  quarter  minutes.  The  contour  of  the  echinus  in  the  latter 
capital  is   a  straight  line,   and   the    contour   of  that    at    Corinth  is 

elliptical. 

It  seems  to  be  supposed,  by  many  persons,  that  the  Grecian 
orders  must  be  executed  without  any  deviations  from  the  original 
examples.  Of  such  persons  I  would  inquire,  what  example  they 
would  choose  ;  for  it  is  a  singular  fact,  that  no  two  can  be  found 
which  agree,  either  in  their  general  proportions  or  in  their  details. 
To  those  acquainted  with  this  fact,  it  is  needless  to  urge  the  impro- 
priety of  binding  one's  self  to  a  servile  imitation  of  the  general 
proportions  of  any  of  those  examples,  unless  they  happen  to   suit  our 

purpose. 

I  do  believe,  however,  that  it  is  wise  in   us  to  study  all  the   sys- 
tems  of  architecture,  in  particular  those  of  Greece  and  Rome,  and, 


104  GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ORDERS. 

in  determining  the  general  proportions  of  a  building,  to  endeavor  to 
proportion  the  means  to  the  end  ;  but,  in  the  details,  I  believe  no  one, 
who  thoroughly  understands  the  two  systems,  can  hesitate  for  a  mo- 
ment in  giving  his  decided  preference  to  the  Grecian. 

I  will  give  here  the  above-mentioned  extracts  from  Mr.  Elmes, 
which,  I  think,  will  be  read  with  interest,  and,  I  hope,  to  advantage. 
They  are  taken  from  his  Lectures,  published  in  1821. 

"The  great  superiority  of  the  Greeks  in  architecture  is  to  be 
traced  to  causes  similar  to  those  which  occasioned  their  pre-emi- 
nence in  every  thing  else ;  namely,  a  deep  investigation  into  first 
principles  ;  an  accurate  perception  of  the  elements  of  all  that  they 
attempted  to  execute. 

"A  similar  investigation,  and  a  similar  perception  or  knowledge, 
and  nothing  else,  will  produce  the  like  effects  in  our  country  and  in 
our  times. 

"To  the  Greeks,  and  to  them  alone,  let  the  student  look  for  gran- 
deur of  composition,  and,  indeed,  for  all  the  laws  of  architecture, 
painting  and  sculpture. 

"The  grand  divisions  of  the  architecture  of  Greece  are,  first,  the 
three  orders  of  columns,  technically  called  the  orders :  secondly,  the 
several  orders  of  temples,  or  their  sacred  edifices  ;  and,  thirdly,  the 
various  methods  of  intercolumniations,  or  manner  of  regulating  the 
distances  of  columns. 

"  It  is  these  great  or  primary  divisions,  and  their  due  observance, 
which  entitle  the  architecture  of  the  Greeks  to  the  dignified  epithet 
of  the  wisdom  of  the  orders. 

"Every  order  is  composed  of  primary  and  divisional  parts,  which 
differ  in  each  of  the  orders,  as  will  presently  be  described. 


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GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ORDERS.  105 

"Every  column,  except  the  Doric,  has  three  parts;  the  base,  the 
shaft,  and  the  capital.  The  lowest  or  thickest  part  of  the  shaft  is 
used  by  architects  as  the  universal  standard  whence  all  the  meas- 
ures which  regulate  and  determine  heights  and  projections  are 
taken. 

"The  bases  of  the  various  orders  differ  from  each  other  in  their 
essential  parts,  and  even  among  themselves,  in  non-essentials,  al- 
though not  in  character.  The  base  of  a  column  is  composed  of  a 
series  of  mouldings  encircling  the  bottom  diameter  according  to  its 
order. 

"  The  Doric  has  no  base.  The  Ionic  differs  in  various  specimens ; 
but  that  which  has  been  the  most  used  for  this  order  is  called  the 
Attic  base,  and  is  composed  of  a  cubical  plinth,  on  which  are  a  circu- 
lar torus,  a  fillet,  a  scotia,  and  a  compound  moulding  called  an  astragal, 
consistinff  of  a  small  torus  and  two  fillets,  one  above  and  the  other 
below.  A  small  cavetto,  or  hollow,  connects  the  upper  fillet,  which  is 
somewhat  larger  than  a  diameter,  to  the  lower  extremity  of  the 
shaft. 

"From  this  simple  and  beautiful  base  all  the  others  appear  to 
have  emanated,  as  it  contains  the  component  members  and  leading 
characteristics  of  them  all.  It  has  also  been  more  universally  used 
than  any  of  the  others,  having  been  borrowed  from  its  Ionian  pro- 
prietor by  the  Corinthian,  and  even  occasionally  by  the  Roman 
Doric. 

"  Some  of  the  Greek,  or  true  Ionic  bases,  differ  from  the  Attic  in 
their  arrangements,  but  are  generally  inferior  where  the  difference  is 
essential. 

"The  Corinthian  base  consists  of  a  plinth,  a  torus,  a  fillet,  then  a 
large  scotia,  next  a  fillet,  sometimes  two  beads,  then  a  second  and 
27 


106  GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ORDERS. 

smaller  scotia,  and  the  concluding  astragal,  fillets,  and  usual  hollow 
on  the  top  to  connect  it  with  the  shaft. 

"The  Composite  base  differs  so  little  from  the  Corinthian,  where 
the  Attic  base  is  not  used,  that  it  is  not  worth  detailing. 

"Having  thus  defined  the  lower  division  of  the  column,  its  base, 
our  next  step  will  be  to  the  shaft.  The  shaft  of  a  column  is  that 
columnar  conical  body  which  is  situated  between  the  base  and  the 
capital.  In  some  examples,  it  is  plain,  in  others,  fluted,  or  divided 
into  perpendicular  circular  channels,  which  are  diflferently  formed, 
and  variously  divided,  in  the  different  orders.  In  the  Doric,  that  is, 
the  true  Doric,  they  are  formed  without  intervening  fillets,  and  are 
called  by  workmen  arris  flutes.  Such  are  Doric  flutes,  which  shoidd 
never  be  used  to  any  other  order,  nor  should  any  other  kind  of  fluting 
ever  be  applied  to  the  Doric  order.  These  rules  are  sanctioned  by 
first  principles,  and  the  examples  of  the  Greeks,  and  violated  by  the 
Romans,  the  modern  Italians,  and  the  Anglo-Italian  architects  of  the 
present  day. 

"The  flutings  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  shafts  are  differently 
executed.  Between  each  flute  there  is  a  fillet  or  part  of  the  shaft 
left  uncut,  of  half  its  width,  and  the  flutes  are  channelled  in  equal  to 
half  their  width,  forming  semicircles  on  their  plan.  These  are  also 
often  fluted  only  two  thirds  of  the  way  down,  and  then  the  lower 
third  is  carved  to  resemble  a  circular  staff  placed  in  the  flutes  and 
rounded  on  the  top. 

"The  next  and  concluding  portion  of  the  column  is  the  capital, 
which  differs,  according  to  the  order  to  which  it  belongs.  The 
capital  is  the  most  striking  part  of  an  order,  and,  to  common  ob- 
servers, is  the  portion  by  which  they  best  judge  the  name  of  an 
order.     In  the  pure,  that  ^s,  the  Greek  system  of  classical  architec- 


GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ORDERS.  107 

ture,  every  other  part  of  an  order  bears  its  character  as  completely 
as  the  capitals  ;  but  in  the  Roman  and  modern  systems,  they  are 
huddled,  mixed  and  perverted,  in  a  manner  destructive  to  good  taste 
and  correct  classification. 

"The  capital  of  the  Doric  order  agrees  in  character  in  all  the 
ancient  examples,  although  it  differs  in  minor  parts,  which  difference 
is  specific,  and  does  not  detract  from  the  generic  characteristics  of 
the  order  :  therefore  the  following  general  description  is  applicable 
to  all. 

"The  Doric  capital  is  divided  into  three  principal  parts — the  aba- 
cus, the  echinus,  and  the  annulets.  The  abacus  is  the  superior 
member  or  covering  of  the  capital,  and  appertains  to  each  of  the 
three  orders,  but  it  assumes  a  different  and  characteristic  form  in 
each.  In  the  Doric  and  Ionic,  the  abacus  is  square  in  its  plan, 
plain  in  the  Doric,  and  moulded  in  the  Ionic  ;  and  in  the  Corinthian, 
each  face  is  hollowed  into  a  circular,  and  (with  the  exception  of  the 
example  in  the  portico  at  Athens,  called  the  Poekile)  cut  off  at  the 
angles. 

"The  abacus  of  the  Doric  capital  is  a  parallelopipedon,  or  unequal 
cube,  varying  from  ten  to  twelve  minutes,  or  about  the  sixth  part  of 
the  bottom  diameter,  in  height,  in  the  best  examples.  Immediately 
under  the  abacus  is  the  large  elhptico-circular  member,  called  the 
echinus,  the  outline  of  which  resembles  a  chestnut.  The  echinus, 
in  the  finest  specimens  of  the  order,  is  either  elliptical  or  hyperbolical 
in  its  perpendicular  outhne,  but  never  circular  ;  and,  with  the  annu- 
lets under  it,  is  the  same  height  as  the  abacus. 

"The  annulets,  as  their  name  imports,  are  three  rings,  or  circular 
fillets,  under  the  echinus,  falling  off  under  each  other  perpendicularly, 
like  an  inverted  flight  of  steps,  and  partaking  of  the  general  outline 
of  the  echinus  in  the  arrangement  of  its  angles. 


108  GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ORDERS. 

"In  many  examples,  at  about  thirty  minutes  below  the  top  of  the 
abacus,  is  a  channel  sunk  round  the  shaft,  as  if  to  determine  the  size 
of  the  capital,  situated  in  the  place  of  the  Roman  hypotrachelion,  or 
necking,  whether  the  shaft  be  fluted  or  plain. 

"In  no  instance  is  the  superiority  of  the  Grecian  style  of  architec- 
ture over  the  Roman  more  apparent  than  when  viewed  compara- 
tively, in  this  order.  To  the  beautiful  and  characteristic  abacus  of 
the  true  Doric,  the  Romans  have  added  the  moulded  cymatium  and 
fillet  on  the  top.  For  the  chaste  simplicity  and  elegant  outline  of 
the  echinus,  they  have  substituted  the  clumsy  and  tasteless  ovolo, 
which  they  even  have  often  spoiled  by  carving.  For  the  annulet, 
they  often  substitute  an  astragal,  or  a  bead  and  fillet.  For  the 
delicate  and  effective  channelled  hypotrachelion,  they  bolster  round 
the  shaft  the  colarino  of  the  Corinthian  ;  and,  to  complete  the  ab- 
surdity, leaves  have  even  been  added  in  the  part  between  the  neck- 
ing and  the  under  moulding  of  the  capital,  which  Palladio,  oddly 
enough,  calls  the  frieze  of  the  capital.  To  its  beautifully  propor- 
tioned shaft  they  have  added  several  diameters  in  height.  For  its 
conical  outline,  they  have  substituted  the  swelling  shaft ;  and  for  the 
shallow  arris  flutings  of  the  original,  the  semicircularly  hollowed 
flutes  and  wide  fillets  of  the  other  orders  have  not  seldom  been 
misapplied. 

"I  shall  now  proceed  to  the  investigation  and  description  of  the 
Ionic  order.  The  Ionic  capital  is  divided  into  two  principal  or 
leading  features,  the  abacus  and  the  volutes.  The  abacus  is  a 
right-angled  parallelogram,  nearly  square  on  its  plan,  and  moulded 
on  its  perpendicular  sides,  or  edges,  sometimes  with  a  cymatium, 
sometimes  with  an  echinus.  The  volutes  are  two  spiral  mouldings 
on  each  side  of  the  front,  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  alike  on  two 


GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ORDERS.  109 

faces,  and  the  other  two  profiles  or  sides  aUke  in  themselves,  but 
differing  from  the  front  ;  the  extremities  of  each  are  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  centre  of  the  column.  Each  spiral,  or  volute,  has 
the  same  number  of  volutions,  or  spirals,  which  are  differently  con- 
nected by  mouldings,  passing  between  and  behind  them,  round  the 
shaft  of  the  column. 

"One  of  the  most  beautiful  examples  of  simple  dignity  found  in 
this  order,  or  perhaps  in  any  other,  is  that  of  the  small  Ionic  temple 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  Illyssus,  at  Athens. 

"Another  fine  and  more  embellished  example  of  the  Ionic  order, 
is  taken  from  the  beautiful  temple  of  Minerva  Polias,  at  Priene,  in 
Ionia  ;  the  architect  of  which  was  Pytheus,  who,  requiring  an  en- 
riched order,  did  not,  like  the  Romans,  corrupt  the  Doric  with 
misplaced  ornaments,  but  rejected  it  entirely,  and  composed  this 
elegant  specimen  upon  the  pure  elements  of  the  ancient  order. 
The  small  projection  of  the  cymatium,  or  upper  moulding  of  the 
cornice,  and  its  great  height,  are  beautiful,  and  well  adapted  to 
receive  its  ornaments,  as  it  is  less  obscured  by  the  shadow  of  the 
concave  and  convex  parts  of  the  moulding.  The  dentils  are  intro- 
duced in  the  bed-mould  of  the  cornice  with  great  propriety  and  effect, 
as  their  bold  and  singular  projection  relieves  them  completely  from 
each  other.  The  architrave  is  well  proportioned  ;  but,  having  three 
fascife  instead  of  two,  it  encroaches  too  much  upon  the  Corinthian. 

"The  capital  is  an  elegant  and  embellished  variation  of  that  from 
the  Illyssus  ;  it  is  more  enriched,  without  destroying  the  harmony  and 
elegance  of  its  proportions,  and  the  spirals  of  the  volutes  are  elegant- 
ly and  tastefully  drawn. 

"The  hem,  or  border,  of  this  capital,  from  volute  to  volute,  with 
its  dehcate  fillet  resting  on  the  grandly  designed  ovolo,  connecting 
28 


tlO  GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ORDERS. 

with  a  graceful  curve  the  spirals  of  the  volute,  seems  to   keep  them 
in  their  situations,  and  greatly  conduces  to  the  beauty  of  the  capital. 

"Our  next  and  last  step,  in  the  description  of  the  orders,  is  to  the 
Corinthian.  This  is  the  richest  and  most  embellished,  and  is,  as  it 
were,  the  seal  and  completion  of  them  all. 

"This  order,  though  the  most  embellished,  is  yet  the  most  simple 
and  easy  to  use  in  either  colonnades  or  porticos,  having  neither  the 
difficulty  of  the  triglyphs  of  the  Doric,  nor  the  dissimilar  faces  of  the 
Ionic,  which  require  much  skill  to  adapt  in  angle  columns. 

"The  principal  examples  of  the  Corinthian  order,  now  remaining 
m  Italy  and  Greece,  do  not  differ  from  each  other  so  essentially  in 
character  as  either  the  Doric  or  the  Ionic. 

"The  Corinthian  order,  as  used  in  the  Pantheon,  at  Rome,  is, 
although  rather  plain,  of  beautiful  proportions  :  it  is  chaste,  correct 
and  an  excellent  model  for  imitation  and  study.  Another  very  tine 
example  is  found  in  the  three  columns  of  the  Campo  Vaccino,  at 
Rome,  supposed  to  be  the  remains  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator. 
The  elegance  and  beauty  of  this  example,  particularly  the  capital, 
its  graceful  form,  and  the  delicacy  of  its  ornaments,  render  it  one  of 
the  most  complete  examples  now  existing  of  the  Corinthian  order. 

"Another  fine  specimen  of  this  order  is  that  of  the  temple  of  Ves- 
ta, or  the  Sybil,  at  Tivoli,  near  Rome.  Yet  no  less  to  be  admired 
is  the  order  of  the  Choragic  monument  of  Lysicrates,  near  Athens, 
called  by  some  travellers  the  lantern  of  Demosthenes. 

"Having-  extolled  the  architecture  of  the  Greeks  above  that  of 
the  Romans,  in  a  manner  beyond  M^hat  the  admirers  of  the  Roman 
style  may  approve,  permit  me  to  repeat,  by  way  of  explanation, 
that  it  was  not  in  costliness  or  magnitude,  that  the  mighty  genius  of 
the  Greeks  developed  itself,  so  much  as  in  invention,  in  taste,  in 
beauty,  in  refinement,  and   in   leaving  to   posterity  the  best  modch 


GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ORDERS.  m 

for  imitation.  These  qualities  have  given  this  gifted  people  their  de- 
served pre-eminence  over  all  their  imitators  or  competitors. 

"No  remains  of  architecture  or  sculpture  are  to  be  found  in  Greece 
but  what  are  canons  of  art,  while  Rome  possesses  more  to  corrupt 
the  taste  of  the  young  architect  than  all  its  excellences  can  counter- 
balance. It  is,  therefore,  to  the  rules,  the  forms,  the  proportions,  the 
taste  of  the  former,  that  the  attention  of  the  student  should  be  per- 
petually recalled. 

"The  three  essential  and  distinct  qualities  in  architecture  are 
strength,  grace  and  richness.  The  three  orders  of  the  Greeks 
possess  all  these  requisites,  and  the  five  anomalous  orders  of  the 
Romans  possess  no  more.  The  aforesaid  qualities  are  the  land- 
marks, the  boundaries,  the  north  and  south  poles  of  the  art.  The 
Doric  displays  the  first-mentioned  quality  of  strength  ;  the  Ionic, 
the  second,  of  grace  ;  and  the  Corinthian,  the  third,  of  richness. 
The  Corinthian  is  the  maximum,  uniting  beautiful  simplicity  and 
florid  decoration  ;  while  the  Doric  possesses  pure  simplicity,  plainness 
and  robust  strength  ;  and  the  Ionic  is  the  connecting  link  between 
the  two. 

"The  orders  and  styles  of  architecture  are  but  the  means ;  to  build 
with  good  sense,  propriety  and  taste,  is  the  end. 

"Ancient  examples,  selected  with  judgment  and  pure  taste  ; 
adapted,  with  the  latitude  of  genius,  to  modern  necessities ;  com- 
bined with  the  scientific  inventions  of  modern  construction  ;  and 
perfected  by  study  and  practice ;  are  the  best  schools  of  true  archi- 
tecture. 

"The  Roman  Doric  order  has  been  so  altered  and  abused,  by  va- 
rious architects,  since  the  decline  of  Grecian  purity,  that  some  ex- 
amples hardly  appear  to  belong  to  the  same  order.  This  order  is 
by  Palladio    restored    and   compounded    from    all  the    best    antique 


112  GRECIAN   AND  ROMAN  ORDERS. 

specimens  found  by  him  in  Rome  :  his  column  is  purer  in  style  than 
any  single  ancient  remain.  The  bed  moulding,  or  under  part  of  the 
cornice,  however,  is  too  complex  and  enriched  for  the  simplicity  and 
manly  character  of  the  order.  The  liieze  is  divided  as  he  found  the 
best  remains  in  ancient  Rome,  and  the  triglyphs  are  consequently 
misdivided  ;  the  architrave  has  two  faces,  and  the  whole  entablature 
too  small  a  proportion  of  height.  The  capital  is  also  overloaded  with 
ornament,  the  abacus  is  destroyed  by  the  addition  of  mouldings  ;  the 
echinus  is  converted  to  a  quadrant ;  and  the  graceful  channelling  of 
the  Greek  hypotrachelion  is  omitted,  to  make  room  for  a  clumsy 
necking,  belonging  to  any  order  hut  the  Doric.  He  has  also  added  a 
base  to  the  shaft,  and  omitted  the  beautiful  mutules  which  support  the 
corona  over  every  triglyph  and  metope  of  the  Greek  original. 

"The  next  order  in  the  Roman  system  is  their  Ionic,  which  differs 
almost  as  much  in  detail  as  the  Doric.  In  its  leading  character,  the 
volutes,  however,  it  has  not  been  so  violated  as  the  Doric. 

"The  first  specimen  to  which  I  beg  leave  to  call  your  attention,  is 
from  the  temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis,  at  Rome,  an  excellent  restoration 
of  which,  in  all  its  details,  may  be  found  in  Palladio's  work  on  the 
ancient  temples,  of  Rome.  Its  order  is  undoubtedly  the  best  to  be 
found  in  Rome,  and  resembles  the  one  of  the  theatre  of  Marcellus, 
but  will  not  bear  comparison  with  the  beautiful  Greek  original,  whose 
name  it  usurps. 

"It  remains  for  the  student  to  inquire  from  which  source,  Roman 
or  Greek,  he  can  draw  the  most  graceful  proportions  of  the  Ionic 
order.  In  the  Roman  specimens,  their  overloaded  cornices,  their 
ill-proportioned  entablatures,  their  vulgar  profiles,  and  the  broken 
spiral  lines  of  their  volutes,  render  them,  in  my  opinion,  utterly  unfit 
for  models." 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


Aaron^s  Rod;  an  ornamental  figure  representing 
a  rod  with  a  serpent  entwined  about  it,  and 
called  by  some,  though  improperly,  the  Cadu- 
ceus  of  Mercury. 

Abacus ;  the  upper  member  of  a  capital  of  a 
column,  serving  as  a  kind  of  crown-piece  in 
the  Grecian  Doric,  and  a  collection  of  members 
or  mouldings  in  the  other  orders. 

Abutment ;  a  pier,  upwn  which  the  extremity  of 
an  arch  rests. 

Accessories ;  in  architectural  composition,  those 
parts,  or  ornaments,  either  designed  or  acciden- 
tal, which  are  not  apparently  essential  to  the 
use  and  character  of  a  building. 

A  cropolis ;  from  the  Greek  ;  the  highest  part  of 
a  city,  the  citadel  or  fortress. 

Acroteria ;  small  pedestals  placed  on  the  apex 
and  two  sides  of  a  pediment.  They  sometimes 
support  statues. 

j^gricanes ;  sculptures  representing  the  heads 
and  skulls  of  rams  ;  commonly  used  as  a  deco- 
ration of  ancient  altars,  friezes,  &c. 

JEtoma ;  a  pediment,  or  the  tympanum  of  a  ped- 
iment. 

Aih,  or  Aisle ;  a  walk  in  a  church  on  the  sides 
of  the  nave  ;  the  wings  of  a  choir. 

Alcove  ;  a  recess,  or  part  of  a  chamber,  separated 
by  an  estrade,  or  partition  of  columns,  and 
other  corresponding  ornaments. 

Amphiprostyle ;  an  order  of  temples  among  the 
Greeks,  having  columns  in  the  back,  as  well  as 
the  front. 

Alto-relievo,  or  High^elief;  that  kind  or  pwrtion 
of  sculpture,  which  projects  so  much  from  the 

29 


surface  to  which  it  is  attached  as  to  appear 
nearly  insulated.  It  is  therefore  used  in  com- 
parison with  Mezzo-relievo,  or  Mean-relief, 
and  in  opposition  to  Basso-relievo,  or  Loio- 
relief. 

Amphitheatre ;  a  spacious  edifice,  of  a  circular 
or  oval  form,  in  which  the  combats  and  shows 
of  antiquity  were  exhibited. 

Ancones  ;  the  carved  key-stone  of  arches. 

Angle-rafter  ;  in  carpentry,  otherwise  Hip-rafter  ; 
see  Hip. 

Angular  capital;  the  modern  Ionic,  or  Scammo- 
zian  capital,  which  is  formed  alike  on  all  the 
four  faces,  so  as  to  return  at  the  angles  of  the 
building. 

Annulet;  a  small  square  moulding,  commonly 
used  to  connect  the  others. 

Antm  ;  small  projections,  in  Grecian  architecture, 
from  the  wall,  to  receive  the  entablature  from 
the  columns  of  a  portico,  and  having  bases  and 
capitals  different  from  the  columns. 

Apophyge ;  the  curve  connecting  the  upper  fillet 
of  the  base,  or  under  one  of  the  capital,  with 
the  cylindrical  part  of  the  .'^haft. 

Areeostyle ;  a  manner  of  intercolumniation,  in 
which  all  the  columns  are  distant  from  each 
other  about  four  diameters. 

Arcade ;  an  aperture  in  a  wall,  with  an  arched 
head.  It  dso  signifies  a  range  of  apertures 
with  arched  heads. 

Arch ;  a  part  of  a  building  supported  at  its  ex- 
tremities only,  and  concave  towards  the  earth  or 
horizon. 

Architectonic ;  something  endowed  with  the  pow- 
er and  skill  of  building,  or  calculated  to  assist 
the  architect. 


114 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


Architrave  ;  tlie  undermost  principal  division  of 
an  entablature. 

Astragal ;  a  small  moulding,  semicircular  in  pro- 
file. 


B. 


Back ;  generally  that  side  of  an  object  which  is 
opposite  to  the  face,  or  breast :  but  the  back  of 
a  handrail  is  the  upper  side  of  it ;  that  of  a 
rafter  is  the  upper  side  of  it,  in  the  sloping 
plane  of  one  side  of  a  roof 

Back-shutters,  or  Back-fiaps;  additional  breadths 
hinged  to  the  front-shutters,  for  completely 
closing  tiie  aperture,  when  the  window  is  to  be 
shut. 

Balcony  (from  the  French  halcon)  ;  an  open 
gallery,  projecting  from  the  front  of  a  building, 
and  commonly  constructed  of  iron  or  wood. 

Baluster ;  a  small  kind  of  column  or  pillar,  be- 
longing to  a  balustrade. 

Balustrade;  a  range  of  balusters,  supporting  a 
cornice,  and  used  as  a  parapet  or  screen,  for 
concealing  a  roof,  or  other  object. 

Band ;  a  square  member  in  a  profile. 

Base;  the  lower  division  of  a  column.  In  the 
Greek  Doric  there  is  no  base. 

Battlement ;  see  Parapet. 

Bay-window ;  a  window  projecting  from  the  front, 
in  two  or  more  planes,  and  not  forming  the 
segment  of  a  circle. 

Bed-mouldings ;  the  mouldings  below  the  corona  in 
a  cornice. 

Belfry,  anciently  the  campanile;  the  part  of  a 
steeple  in  which  the  bells  are  hung. 

Behuderc ;  a  turret,  look-out,  or  observatory,  com- 
manding a  fine  prospect,  and  generally  very 
ornamental. 

Boultin ;  a  name  for  the  echinus. 

Bow-idndow ;  a  window  forming  the  segment  of 
a  circle. 

Broach  (in  Gothic  architecture)  ;  a  spire,  or  po- 
lygonal pyramid,  whether  of  stone  or  timber. 

Bracket  (in  Gothic  architecture)  ;  a  projection  to 
sustain  a  statue,  or  other  ornament,  and  some- 
times supporting  the  ribs  of  a  roof 

Buttress  (in  Gothic  architecture)  ;  a  projection  on 
the  exterior  of  a  wall,  to  strengthen  the  piers 
and  resist  the  pressure  of  the  arches  within. 


Cabling;  cylindrical  pieces  let  into  the  lower 
part  of  the  flutes  of  columns. 

Caduceus ;  an  emblem  or  attribute  of  Mercury  ; 
a  rod  entwined  by  two-winged  serpents. 

Caisson ;  a  name  for  sunk  panels  of  geometrical 
forms. 

Campanu ;  the  body  of  the  Corinthian  capital. 

Campana;,  or  Campanula,  or  Chitta; ;  the  "drops  of 
the  Doric  architrave. 

Canopy  (in  Gothic  architecture)  ;  the  ornamental 
dripstone  of  an  arch.  It  is  usually  of  the  ogee 
form. 

Canted  (in  Gothic  architecture)  ;  any  part  of  a 
building  having  its  angles  cut  off,  is  said  to  be 
canted. 

Capital;  the  upper  division  of  a  column,  or  pillar. 

Cartouch ;  the  square  blocks  under  the  eaves  of  a 
house. 

Cant-moulding ;  a  bevelled  surface,  neither  per- 
pendicular to  the  horizon,  nor  to  the  vertical 
surface  to  which  it  may  be  attached. 

Cap  (in  joinery) ;  the  uppermost  of  an  assemblage 
of  parts,  as  the  capitaJ  of  a  column,  the  cornice 
of  a  door,  &.c. 

Caryatida,  or  Caryatides ;  so  called  from  the 
Caryatides,  a  people  of  Caria ;  an  order  of 
columns  or  pilasters,  under  the  figures  of  wo- 
men dressed  in  long  robes,  after  the  manner  of 
the  Carian  people,  and  serving  to  support  an 
entablature.  This  order  is  called  the  Ca- 
ryatic. 

Case  of  a  door;  the  frame  in  which  the  door  is 
liung. 

Catacomb ;  a  subterraneous  place  for  the  inter- 
ment of  the  dead. 

Cavetto;  one  of  the  regular  mouldings  of  Roman 
architecture,  hollowed  in  the  form  of  a  quad- 
rant of  a  circle. 

Chancel;  the  communion  place,  or  that  part  of  a 
Christian  church  between  the  altar  and  balus- 
trade wliich  encloses  it. 

Chantry ;  a  small  chapel  on  the  side  of  a  church. 

Cincture ;  a  ring  or  fillet  surrounding  the  top  and 
bottom  of  a  shaft,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  the  apophyge. 

Circus;  a  spacious  building  in  which  equestrian 
exercises  are  exhibited. 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


II; 


Coin,  or  Quoin ;  the  comer  or  angle  made  by 
the  two  surfaces  of  a  stone  or  brick  building, 
whether  external  or  internal. 

Colonnade  ;  a  range  of  columns,  whether  attached 
or  insulated,  and  supporting  an  entablature. 

Column ;  according  to  the  best  method  of  de- 
scribing it,  a  column  is  a  frustum  of  a  very 
elongated  parabola,  and  circular  in  its  plan. 
It  consists  (in  Greek  and  Roman  architecture) 
of  three  parts,  viz.  the  base,  the  shaft,  and  the 
capital. 

Composite  order ;  one  of  the  Roman  orders  of 
architecture. 

Conge  ;  a  moulding  consisting  of  a  simple  curve, 
whether  bending  outwards,  as  the  ovolo  or 
swelling  conge,  or  inwards,  as  the  cavetto  or 
hollow  conge. 

Conservator!/ ;  a  superior  kind  of  greenhouse  for 
valuable  plants,  &c. ,  arranged  in  beds  of  earth, 
with  ornamental  borders. 

Console  ;  a  bracket,  or  projecting  body,  shaped 
like  a  curve  of  contrary  flexure,  scrolled  at  the 
ends,  and  serving  to  support  a  cornice,  bust, 
vase,  or  other  ornament.  Consoles  are  also 
called,  according  to  their  form,  ancones  or 
trusses,  niutules  and  modillions. 

Coiitiiiited ;  uninterrupted,  unbroken,  as  a  contin- 
ued attic,  pedestal,  &c.,  not  broken  by  pilasters 
or  columns. 

Contour ;  a  French  word  for  Outline. 

Coping ;  the  stones  laid  on  the  top  of  a  wall,  to 
strengthen  and  defend  it  from  injury. 

Corheih  ;  carved  work  representing  baskets  filled 
with  flowers  or  fruit,  and  used  as  a  finish  to 
some  elegant  part  of  a  building.  This  word  is 
sometimes  used  to  express  the  bell  or  vase  of 
the  Corinthian  capital. 

Corinthian  order ;  one  of  the  orders  of  architec- 
ture. 

Cornice ;  a  crowning ;  any  moulded  projection 
which  crowns  or  finishes  the  part  to  which  it  is 
attached. 

Cornucopia  ;  the  horn  of  plenty,  represented  in 
sculpture  under  the  figure  of  a  large  horn,  out 
of  which  issue  fruits,  flowers,  grain,  &c. 

Corona ;  the  upper  member  of  a  cornice,  in 
Greek  and  Roman  architecture. 

Corridor ;  a  gallery  or  passage,  in  large  buildings, 
which  leads  to  distant  apartments. 


Counter-forts :  projections  of  masonry  from  a 
wall,  at  certain  regular  distances,  for  strength- 
ening it  or  resisting  a  pressure. 

Coupled  columns ;  those  disposed  in  pairs,  so  as  to 
form  a  narrow  and  wide  interval  alternately. 

Crosettes ;  in  decoration,  the  trusses  or  consoles 
on  the  flanks  of  the  architrave,  under  the  cor- 
nice. 

Croten  ;  the  uppermost  member  of  a  cornice,  \xv- 
eluding  the  corona,  &-c  ;  of  an  arch,  its  most 
elevated  line  or  point. 

Cupola  ;  a  dome  ;  the  hemispherical  summit  of  a 
building. 

Cusp  (in  Gothic  architecture) ;  a  name  for  the 
segments  of  circles  forming  the  trefoil,  quatre- 
foil,  &c. 

Cyma,  Cymatium  ;  the  cyma  is  of  two  kinds  :  the 
cyma-recta,  a  moulding  hollowed  at  the  top 
and  swelling  beneath,  generally  called  cymali- 
um  ;  and  the  cyma-reversa,  or  ogee,  which  is 
swelled  above  and  hollowed  beneath. 


D. 

Dentils  :  small  square  projections  used  in  the  cor- 
nices of  several  of  the  Roman  orders,  and  in 
the  Grecian  Ionic. 

Diastyle ;  a  manner  of  intercolumniation  in  which 
the  columns  are  three  diameters  apart. 

Die  of  a  pedestal;  the  part  comprehended  be- 
tween the  base  and  cornice. 

Ditriglyph ;  having  two  triglyphs  over  an  inter- 
column. 

Dome;  a  concave  ceiling,  commonly  hemispheri- 
cal. 

Doric  order;   one  of  the  ■^'■•ifirs .■*■  architecture. 

Dormant,  or  Dormer  ^Mndow  [\u  Gothic  archi- 
tecture) ;  a  window  set  upon  the  slope  of  a  roof 
or  spire. 

Drops  ;  in  ornamental  architecture,  small  pendent 
cylinders,  or  frustums  of  cones  attached  to  a 
surface  vertically,  with  the  upper  ends  touching 
a  horizontal  surface,  as  in  the  cornice  of  the 
Doric  order. 

Drum,  or  Vase,  of  the  Corinthian  and  Composite 
capitals ;  the  solid  part  to  which  the  foliage  and 
stalks,  or  ornaments,  are  attached. 

Dye;  the  plain  part  of  a  pedestal,  between  the 
base  and  cornice. 


116 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


E. 


Eaees  ;  the  margin  or  edge  of  a  roof  overhanging 
the  walls. 

Echinus ;  a  moulding  in  the  Roman  orders,  con- 
sisting of  tiie  quadrant  of  a  circle  turned  out- 
wards ;  in  the  Greek,  it  is  composed  of  one  of 
the  conic  sections. 

'Embattled;  a  building  with  a  parapet,  having 
embrasures,  and  therefore  resembling  a  battery, 
or  castle. 

Encarpus  ;  the  festoons  on  a  frieze  ;  see  Festoon. 

Untablaturc ;  the  horizontal  part  of  an  order, 
supported  by  the  columns. 

Entail  (in  Gothic  architecture) ;  delicate  carving. 

Entasis  ;  the  swelling  of  a  column. 

Epistylium  ;  or  architrave  of  the  entablature. 

Eustyle ;  the  manner  of  intercolumniation  in 
which  the  columns  are  distant  two  diameters 
and  a  quarter. 


F. 


Facade  ;  the  face  or  front  of  a  building. 

Falling  moulds  ;  in  joinery,  the  two  moulds  which 
are  to  be  applied  to  the  vertical  sides  of  the 
railpicce,  in  order  to  form  the  back  and  under 
surface  of  the  rail,  and  finish  the  squaring. 

Fane,  Phanr,  Vane  (in  Gothic  architecture) ;  a 
plate  of  metal,  usually  cut  into  some  fantastic 
form,  and  turning  on  a  pivot,  to  determine  the 
course  of  the  wind. 

Fascia  ;  a  band  or  fillet.  This  term  is  usually 
employed  to  denote  the  flat  members  into  which 
the  architrave  is  divid\3d. 

Fastiginm  ;   see  Pediment. 

Festoon  ;  a  carved  ornament  resembling  a  wreath, 
attached  at  both  ends,  and  falling  in  the  middle. 

Mllet ;  see  Annulet. 

Flutings  ;  vertical  channels  on  the  shafts  of  col- 
umns. 

Flyers  ;  steps  of  which  the  treads  are  all  parallel. 

Fret ;  a  species  of  ornament  commonly  composed 
of  straight  grooves  or  channelures  at  right  an- 
gles to  each  other.  The  labyrinth  fret  has 
many  turnings,  or  angles,  but  in  all  cases  the 
parts  are  parallel  and  perpendicular  to  each  other. 

Frieze ;  the  member  of  an  entablature  between 
the  architrave  and  cornice. 

Fust ;  the  shaft  of  a  column. 


G. 

Glyphs ;  the  channels  in  the  trigljphs  of  the 
Doric  frieze. 

Gola  ;  see  Ogee. 

Gothic ;  a  peculiar  style  of  architecture,  distinct 
from  either  the  Grecian  or  Roman. 

Gorge  ;  see  Cavetto. 

Greek  orders  of  architecture ;  the  Doric,  Ionic, 
and  Corinthian.  See  these  names  respectively. 

Griffin,  or  Griffon  ;  a  fabulous  animal,  sacred  to 
Apollo,  and  mostly  represented  with  the  head 
and  wings  of  an  eagle,  and  the  body,  legs  and 
tail  of  a  lion. 

Groin  ;  the  diagonal  line  formed  by  the  intersec- 
tion of  two  vaults  in  a  roof. 

Groined  ceiling ;  a  cradling  constructed  of  ribs. 

Grotesque  ;  the  light,  gay  and  beautiful  style  of 
ornament  practised  by  the  ancient  Romans  in 
the  decoration  of  their  palaces,  baths,  villas, 

&.C. 

Guilochcs ;  an  ancient  ornament  composed  of 
fillets,  which  cross  and  recross  each  other,  and 
generally  encompass  a  plain  or  ornamented 
roset. 

GuttfE  ;  small  cones,  representing  drops,  placed  in 
the  soflit  of  the  mutules,  and  under  the  triglyphs 
in  the  Doric  entablature. 

H. 

Hall ;  a  word  commonly  denoting  a  mansion,  or 
large  public  building,  as  well  as  the  large  room 
at  the  entrance. 

Hyperthyron  ;  the  lintel  of  a  doorway. 

Hypotrachelion  ;  the  neck  of  a  capital. 


Impost ;  any  combination  of  mouldmgs  serving  as 
the  capital  or  cornice  of  a  pier. 

lutercoJumniation  ;  the  distance  between  two  col- 
umns. 

Insulated;  standing  alone,  or  detached  from  any 
contiguous  building. 

Ionic  order  ;  one  of  the  orders  of  architecture. 

J. 

Jambs ;  the  vertical  sides  of  an  aperture,  as  of 
doors,  windows,  &,c. 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


117 


K. 


Key-stone  ;  the  centre  or  highest  stone  in  an  arch. 
It  is  frequently  larger  than  the  rest,  and  orna- 
mented with  sculpture. 


Labyrinth ;  a  building,  tne  numerous  passages 
and  perplexing  windings  of  which,  render  the 
escape  from  it  difficult,  and  almost  impossible. 
Hence,  Laby rinth  fret ;  a  fret  with  many  turn- 
ings, which  was  a  favorite  ornament  of  the 
ancients. 

LacunaricB,  or  Lacunars  ;  panels  or  coffers  form- 
ed on  the  ceilings  of  apartments,  and  sometimes 
on  the  soffits  of  coronae  in  the  Ionic,  Corinthian 
and  Composite  orders. 

Lantern ;  a  turret  raised  above  the  roof,  with 
windows  round  the  sides,  and  constructed  for 
lighting  an  apartment  beneath.  * 

Larmier ;  see  Corona. 

Lintel;  the  horizontal  piece  which  covers  the 
opening  of  a  door  or  window. 

List ;  see  Fillet. 


M. 


Mechanical  powers ;  such  implements  or  ma- 
chines as  are  used  for  raising  greater  weights, 
or  overcoming  greater  resistances,  than  could 
be  effected  by  the  natural  strength  without 
them. 

Medallion ;  a  circular  tablet,  ornamented  with 
embossed  or  carved  figures,  bustos,  &,c. 

Metope ;  the  space  between  two  triglyphs  in  the 
Doric  frieze.  It  is  frequently  decorated  with 
sculpture. 

Mezzanine  ;  a  low  story  between  two  floors. 

Minaret ;  a  Turkish  steeple  with  a  balcony. 

Minute  ;  the  sixtieth  part  of  the  diameter  of  a 
column. 

Modillion ;  a  projection  under  the  corona  of  the 
richer  orders,  resembling  a  bracket. 

Module ;  the  semi-diameter  of  a  column  at  the 
foot  of  a  shaft. 

Mono-triglyph  ;  having  only  one  triglyph  between 
two  adjoining  columns  :  the  general  practice  in 
the  Grecian  Doric. 

30 


Mouldings;  the  smaller  parts  of  architecture, 
whether  Roman  or  Grecian,  which  are  shaped 
in  regular  forms.  They  are  so  called  from 
being  worked  with  a  mould. 

Mutule ;  those  projections  in  the  Doric  cornice 
supposed  to  represent  the  ends  of  rafters. 

N. 

Nave ;  the  body  of  a  church,  reaching  from  the 
choir  or  chancel  to  the  principal  door. 

NecJc  of  a  capital ;  the  space  between  the  chan- 
nelures  and  the  annulets  of  the  Grecian  Dorie 
capital ;  in  the  Roman  Doric,  the  space  be- 
tween the  astragal  and  annulet. 

Netoel ;  in  a  circular  staircase,  the  centre  round 
which  the  steps  ascend. 

Niche ;  a  cavity  in  a  wall,  to  receive  a  statue,  or 
other  ornament. 

O. 

Obelisk  ;  a  quadrangular  pyramid,  high  and  slen- 
der, raised  as  a  monument  or  ornament,  and 
commonly  charged  with  inscriptions  and  orna- 
ments. 

Odeum  ;  among  the  ancients,  a  place  for  the  re- 
hearsal of  music  and  other  particular  purposes. 

Ogee  ;  a  moulding  of  two  members,  one  concave, 
the  other  convex.  It  is  otherwise  called  a  cy- 
matium. 

Orlo  ;  the  plinth  of  a  column  or  pedestal. 

Ovolo  ;  see  Echinus. 

Orthography  ;  an  elevation  showing  all  the  parts 
of  a  building  in  true  proportion. 


Pagoda,  or  Pagod ;  an  Indian  temple  common 
in  Hindostan  and  the  countries  to  the  east. 
These  structures,  dedicated  to  idolatry,  are 
mostly  of  stone,  square,  not  very  lofty,  without 
windows,  and  crowned  with  a  cupola. 

Panel ;  a  compartment  enclosed  by  mouldings. 

Parapet ;  a  low  wall  round  the  roof  of  a  building. 

Pavilion ;  a  kind  of  turret  or  building  usually  in- 
sulated, and  contained  under  a  single  roof; 
sometimes  square  and  sometimes  in  the  form 
of  a  dome  ;  thus  called  from  the  resemblance 
of  its  roof  to  a  tent. 


118 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


Pedestal ;  a  square  body  of  stone,  or  other  mate- 
rial, raised  to  sustain  a  column,  statue,  &c^ 
It  is  therefore  the  base,  or  lowest  part,  of  an 
order  of  columns.  A  square  pedestal  is  that  of 
which  the  height  and  width  are  equal. 

Pediment ;  an  ornament,  properly  of  a  low  trian- 
gular figure,  crowning  the  front  of  a  build- 
ing. 

Pentastyle ;  an  edifice  having  five  columns  in 
front. 

Periptere  ;  a  building  encompassed  with  columns, 
which  form  a  kind  of  aisle  around  it. 

Piazza  ;  a  portico,  or  covered  walk,  supported  by 
arches. 

Pilaster ;  a  pillar  of  a  rectangular  plan. 

Pillar  ;  a  column  of  an  irregular  make,  not  form- 
ed according  to  rules,  but  of  arbitrary  propor- 
tions ;  free  or  insulated  in  every  part,  and 
always  deviating  from  the  measures  of  regular 
columns.  This  is  the  distinction  of  the  pillar 
from  the  column.  A  square  pillar  is  sometimes 
called  a  pier. 

Pinnacle  ;  the  top  or  roof  of  a  building,  terminat- 
ing in  a  point. 

Plniicccr ;  see  Soffit. 

Platband ;  a  square  member  of  slight  projection. 

Plinth ;  the  square  solid  under  the  base  of  a  col- 
umn, pedestal  or  wall. 

Porch ;  the  kind  of  vestibule  at  the  entrance  of 
temples,  halls,  churches,  &-c. 

Portico ;  an  entablature  supported  by  columns, 
and  surmounted  by  a  pediment. 

Post  and  Railing ;  an  open  wooden  fence,  con- 
sisting of  posts  and  rails  only.  " 

Profile ;  the  contour  of  the  parts  composing  an 
order. 

Pronaos;  an  ancient  name  for  a  porch  to  a  tem- 
ple or  other  spacious  building. 

Proscenium ;  in  a  theatre,  the  stage,  or  the  firont 
of  it. 

Prostyle  ;  having  columns  in  front  only. 

Pycnostyle;  a  manner  of  intercolumniation  of 
one  diameter  and  a  half 

Pyramid ;  a  solid  figure,  having  its  base  triangu- 
lar, square,  or  polygonal,  and  terminating  in  a 
point  at  top. 


Q. 


Quadra ;  any  square  border  or  frame  encompass- 
ing a  basso-relievo,  panel,  &,c. 

Quirk  mouldings ;  the  convex  parts  of  Grecian 
mouldings,  where  they  recede  at  the  top,  and 
form  a  re-entiant  angle  with  the  soffit  which 
covers  the  moulding. 

Quoin,  external  or  internal ;  the  name  is  particu- 
larly applied  to  the  stones  at  the  corners  of 
brick  buildings.  When  these  stand  out  beyond 
the  brick  work,  with  edges  chamfered,  they  are 
called  Rustic  Quoins. 

R. 

Raiser ;  a  board  set  on  edge  under  the  fore  side 
of  a  step  or  stair. 

Raking  Moidding  ;  a  moulding  whose  arrises  are 
inclined  to  the  horizon  in  any  given  angle. 

Wamp  ;  in  handrailing,  a  concavity  on  the  upper 
side,  formed  over  risers,  or  over  a  half  or 
quarter  space,  by  a  sudden  rise  of  the  steps 
above. 

Rcglet,  or  Right ;  a  flat,  narrow  moulding,  used 
chiefly  in  compartments  and  panels,  to  separate 
the  parts  or  members,  and  to  form  knots  or 
frets,  &c. 

Revels,  pronounced  Reveals  ;  the  vertical  retreat- 
ing surface  of  an  aperture,  as  the  two  vertical 
sides  between  the  front  of  the  wall  and  the 
windows  or  door  frame. 

Roman,  or  Composite  order. 

Rose ;  an  ornament  in  the  form  of  a  rose,  found 
chiefly  in  cornices,  friezes,  &.C. 

Rotundo,  or  Rotunda ;  a  common  name  for  any 
circular  building. 

Rudenture  ;  the  figure  of  a  rope,  or  of  a  staff, 
whether  plain  or  carved,  with  which  a  third 
part  of  the  fluting  of  columns  is  frequently 
filled  up.  It  is  sometimes  called  cabling : 
hence  the  columns  are  said  to  be  cabled,  or 
rudented. 

Rustic;  a  manner  of  masonry  in  which  the 
stones  are  indented  at  their  angles ;  also  stonea 
left  rough. 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


119 


Saloon ;  a  spacious,  lofty  and  elegant  hall,  or 
apartment,  vaulted  at  top,  and  generally  having 
two  ranges  of  windows. 

Section  of  a  Building ;  a  representation  of  it,  as 
vertically  divided  into  two  parts,  so  as  to  exhib- 
it the  construction  of  the  interior. 

Stsfpool,  or  Cesspool;  a  deep  hole,  or  well,  un- 
der the  mouth  of  a  drain,  for  the  reception  of 
sediment,  &:c.  bv  which  the  drain  might  be 
choked. 

Seirer ;  a  common  drain,  or  conductor  for  convey- 
ing foul  water,  &c. 

Shaft ;  the  part  of  a  column  between  the  base 
and  capital. 

Shank ;  a  name  for  the  flat  space  between  the 
channels  in  the  Doric  triglyph. 

Sock,  or  Zocle  :  a  square  piece,  broader  than  A  is 
high,  placed  under  the  bases  of  pedestals,  &c. 
to  support  vases,  and  other  ornaments.  As 
there  is  a  continued  pedestal,  so  there  is  also  a 
continued  socle.     See  Pedestal. 

So£ifa,  or  Sojit ;  any  timber  ceiling  formed  of 
cross  beams  of  flying  cornices,  the  square  com- 
partments or  panels  of  which  are  enriched  with 
sculpture  or  painting.  SoJit  also  means  the 
under  side  of  an  architrave,  and  that  of  the 
corona,  or  drip,  &c. :  also  the  horizontal  under- 
sides of  the  heads  of  apertures,  as  of  doors  and 
windows. 

Sjphinz ;  a  favorite  ornament  of  Egyptian  archi- 
tecture, representing  the  monster,  half  woman 
and  half  beast,  said  to  have  been  born  of  Ty- 
phon  and  Echidna. 

Spire  ;  a  slender  pyramid  of  a  polygonal  plan. 

Squaring  handrails ;  the  method  of  cutting  a 
plank  to  the  form  of  a  rail  for  a  staircase,  so 
that  all  the  vertical  sections  may  be  rectangles. 

String-hoard;  in  stairing,  a  board  placed  next  to 
the  well-hole,  and  terminating  the  ends  of  the 
steps. 

Stylobata ;  see  Pedestal. 

Systyle ;  an  intercolumniation  of  two  diameters. 


T(Bnia  ;  the  term  for  the  fillet  separating  the  fi'ieze 
from  the  architrave  in  the  Doric  order. 


J^alon  ;  a  French  term,  either  for  the  astragal  or 
cyma-reversa. 

Terrace  :  an  elevated  area  for  walking  upon,  and 
sometimes  meaning  a  balcony. 

Tetrastylc  ;  having  four  columns  in  front. 

Torus  ;  a  large  moulding,  semicircular  in  profile, 
used  in  bases. 

Tread  of  a  step  ;  the  horizontal  part  of  it. 

Triglyph  ;  the  ornament  in  the  Doric  frieze  sup- 
posed to  represent  the  end  of  beams. 

Tripod ;  a  three-legged  seat,  from  which  the 
priests  of  antiquity  delivered  their  oracles,  and 
frequently  represented  in  architectural  orna- 
ments. 

Trophy ;  an  ornament  representing  the  trunk  of 
a  tree,  supporting  military  weapons,  colors,  &c. 

Tuscan  order ;  one  of  the  Roman  orders  of 
architecture. 

Tympanum  ;  the  space  within  a  pediment.  It  is 
sometimes  adgrned  with  sculpture. 


Valley ;  the  internal  angle  of  two  inclined  sides 
of  a  roof. 

Vase  ;  a  name  for  the  bell,  or  naked  form  of  the 
Corinthian  capital,  on  which  the  leaves  are  dis- 
posed. 

Vault ;  an  arched  roof  When  more  than  a  sem- 
icircle, they  are  called  surmounted,  and  when 
less,  surbased  vaults. 

V'enetian  door ;  a  door  lighted  on  each  side. 

Venetian  window ;  a  window  having  three  sepa- 
rate apertures. 

Volute ;  the  scroll  which  distinguishes  the  Ionic 
capital. 

W. 

Wreathed  columns ;  such  as  are  twisted  in  the 
form  of  a  screw.     Not  now  used. 

Z. 

Zocle ;  see  Socle. 

Zophorus ;  see  Frieze. 

Zystos  ;  among  the  ancients,  a  portico  or  aisle  ol 

unusual  length,  commonly  appropriated  to  g.vro- 

nastic  exercises. 


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